Since 1985, the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) has been the world leader in developing and disseminating information on process safety management and technology. CCPS, an industry technology alliance of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), has published over 80 books in its process safety guidelines and process safety concepts series, and over 100 training modules through its Safety in Chemical Engineering Education (SACHE) series.

• List of Data Tables xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Glossary xix Acknowledgments xxv Preface xxix Introduction 1 1.1 Audience 2 1.2 Scope 3 1.3 Key Changes Since the Initial LOPA Concept Book 4 1.4 Recap of LOPA 6 1.5 Disclaimer 10 1.6 Linkage to Other CCPS Publications 11 1.7 Annotated Description of Chapters 13 Overview: Initiating Events and Independent Protection Layers 16 2.1 LOPA Elements: An Overview 16 2.2 Management Systems to Support LOPA 16 2.3 Scenario Selection 18 2.4 Overview of Scenario Frequency 20 2.5 Overview of Consequences 28 2.6 Risk Considerations 29 2.7 Conclusions 31 Core Attributes 34 3.1 Introduction to Core Attributes 34 3.2 Independence 35 3.3 Functionality 40 3.4 Integrity 47 3.5 Reliability 49 3.6 Auditability 52 3.7 Access Security 53 3.8 Management of Change 54 3.9 Use of Data Tables 55 Example Initiating Events and IE Frequencies 58 4.1 Overview of Initiating Events 58 4.2 Inherently Safer Design and Initiating Event Frequency 59 4.3 Specific Initiating Events for Use in LOPA 60 4.4 External Events 113 4.5 What if Your Candidate Initiating Event is Not Shown in a Data Table? 113 Example IPLs and PFD Values 116 5.1 Overview of Independent Protection Layers (IPLs) 116 5.2 Specific Independent Protection Layers for Use in LOPA 118 5.3 What if Your Candidate IPL is Not Shown in a Data Table? 263 Advanced LOPA Topics 268 6.1 Purpose 268 6.2 Use of QRA Methods Relative to LOPA 269 6.3 Evaluation of Complex Mitigative IPLs 275 6.4 Conclusions 277 Appendices 280 Appendix A: Human Factors Considerations 282 Appendix B: Site-Specific Human Performance Data Collection and Validation 300 Appendix C: Site-Specific Equipment Data Collection and Validation  310 Appendix D: Example Reliability Data Conversion for Check Valves 324 Appendix E: Considerations for Overpressure of Pressure Vessels and Piping 328 REFERENCES 334 INDEX 342

Since 1985, the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) has been the world leader in developing and disseminating information on process safety management and technology. CCPS, an industry technology alliance of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), has published over 80 books in its process safety guidelines and process safety concepts series, and over 100 training modules through its Safety in Chemical Engineering Education (SACHE) series.

• List of Data Tables xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Glossary xix Acknowledgments xxv Preface xxix Introduction 1 1.1 Audience 2 1.2 Scope 3 1.3 Key Changes Since the Initial LOPA Concept Book 4 1.4 Recap of LOPA 6 1.5 Disclaimer 10 1.6 Linkage to Other CCPS Publications 11 1.7 Annotated Description of Chapters 13 Overview: Initiating Events and Independent Protection Layers 16 2.1 LOPA Elements: An Overview 16 2.2 Management Systems to Support LOPA 16 2.3 Scenario Selection 18 2.4 Overview of Scenario Frequency 20 2.5 Overview of Consequences 28 2.6 Risk Considerations 29 2.7 Conclusions 31 Core Attributes 34 3.1 Introduction to Core Attributes 34 3.2 Independence 35 3.3 Functionality 40 3.4 Integrity 47 3.5 Reliability 49 3.6 Auditability 52 3.7 Access Security 53 3.8 Management of Change 54 3.9 Use of Data Tables 55 Example Initiating Events and IE Frequencies 58 4.1 Overview of Initiating Events 58 4.2 Inherently Safer Design and Initiating Event Frequency 59 4.3 Specific Initiating Events for Use in LOPA 60 4.4 External Events 113 4.5 What if Your Candidate Initiating Event is Not Shown in a Data Table? 113 Example IPLs and PFD Values 116 5.1 Overview of Independent Protection Layers (IPLs) 116 5.2 Specific Independent Protection Layers for Use in LOPA 118 5.3 What if Your Candidate IPL is Not Shown in a Data Table? 263 Advanced LOPA Topics 268 6.1 Purpose 268 6.2 Use of QRA Methods Relative to LOPA 269 6.3 Evaluation of Complex Mitigative IPLs 275 6.4 Conclusions 277 Appendices 280 Appendix A: Human Factors Considerations 282 Appendix B: Site-Specific Human Performance Data Collection and Validation 300 Appendix C: Site-Specific Equipment Data Collection and Validation  310 Appendix D: Example Reliability Data Conversion for Check Valves 324 Appendix E: Considerations for Overpressure of Pressure Vessels and Piping 328 REFERENCES 334 INDEX 342

Since 1985, the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) has been the world leader in developing and disseminating information on process safety management and technology. CCPS, an industry technology alliance of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), has published over 80 books in its process safety guidelines and process safety concepts series, and over 100 training modules through its Safety in Chemical Engineering Education (SACHE) series.

• List of Data Tables xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Glossary xix Acknowledgments xxv Preface xxix Introduction 1 1.1 Audience 2 1.2 Scope 3 1.3 Key Changes Since the Initial LOPA Concept Book 4 1.4 Recap of LOPA 6 1.5 Disclaimer 10 1.6 Linkage to Other CCPS Publications 11 1.7 Annotated Description of Chapters 13 Overview: Initiating Events and Independent Protection Layers 16 2.1 LOPA Elements: An Overview 16 2.2 Management Systems to Support LOPA 16 2.3 Scenario Selection 18 2.4 Overview of Scenario Frequency 20 2.5 Overview of Consequences 28 2.6 Risk Considerations 29 2.7 Conclusions 31 Core Attributes 34 3.1 Introduction to Core Attributes 34 3.2 Independence 35 3.3 Functionality 40 3.4 Integrity 47 3.5 Reliability 49 3.6 Auditability 52 3.7 Access Security 53 3.8 Management of Change 54 3.9 Use of Data Tables 55 Example Initiating Events and IE Frequencies 58 4.1 Overview of Initiating Events 58 4.2 Inherently Safer Design and Initiating Event Frequency 59 4.3 Specific Initiating Events for Use in LOPA 60 4.4 External Events 113 4.5 What if Your Candidate Initiating Event is Not Shown in a Data Table? 113 Example IPLs and PFD Values 116 5.1 Overview of Independent Protection Layers (IPLs) 116 5.2 Specific Independent Protection Layers for Use in LOPA 118 5.3 What if Your Candidate IPL is Not Shown in a Data Table? 263 Advanced LOPA Topics 268 6.1 Purpose 268 6.2 Use of QRA Methods Relative to LOPA 269 6.3 Evaluation of Complex Mitigative IPLs 275 6.4 Conclusions 277 Appendices 280 Appendix A: Human Factors Considerations 282 Appendix B: Site-Specific Human Performance Data Collection and Validation 300 Appendix C: Site-Specific Equipment Data Collection and Validation  310 Appendix D: Example Reliability Data Conversion for Check Valves 324 Appendix E: Considerations for Overpressure of Pressure Vessels and Piping 328 REFERENCES 334 INDEX 342