CHERYL TULKOFF is Director of Corporate Quality at National Instruments, Texas, USA. She has over 22 years of experience in electronics manufacturing focusing on failure analysis and reliability. She’s passionate about accelerating product design and development while improving reliability, optimizing resources, and improving customer satisfaction.GREG CASWELL is a Senior Member of the Technical Staff, DfR Solutions. He has over 50 years of experience in the microelectronics industry. His experience encompasses all aspects of SMT manufacturing, circuit board fabrication, advanced packaging, IC fabrication processes and materials, solder reflow, and RoHS.

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• Contributors xviiList of Figures xixList of Tables xxvSeries Foreword xxviiForeword xxixPreface xxxiAcknowledgments xxxiiiAcronyms xxxv1 Introduction to Design for Excellence 11.1 Design for Excellence (DfX) in Electronics Manufacturing 11.2 Chapter 2: Establishing a Reliability Program 21.3 Chapter 3: Design for Reliability (DfR) 31.4 Chapter 4: Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 31.5 Chapter 5: Design for Manufacturability (DfM) 41.6 Chapter 6: Design for Sustainability 41.7 Chapter 7: Root Cause Problem-Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 52 Establishing a Reliability Program 72.1 Introduction 72.2 Best Practices and the Economics of a Reliability Program 92.2.1 Best-in-Class Reliability Program Practices 102.3 Elements of a Reliability Program 122.3.1 Reliability Goals 132.3.2 Defined Use Environments 142.3.3 Software Reliability 152.3.4 General Software Requirements 182.4 Reliability Data 242.4.1 Sources of Reliability Data 272.4.2 Reliability Data from Suppliers 272.5 Analyzing Reliability Data: Commonly Used Probability and Statistics Concepts in Reliability 292.5.1 Reliability Probability in Electronics 302.5.2 Reliability Statistics in Electronics 312.5.2.1 Basic Statistics Assumptions and Caveats 322.5.2.2 Variation Statistics 332.5.2.3 Statistical Distributions Used in Reliability 332.6 Reliability Analysis and Prediction Methods 342.7 Summary 40References 403 Design for Reliability 433.1 Introduction 433.2 DfR and Physics of Failure 453.2.1 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 483.2.2 Fault Tree Analysis 483.2.3 Sneak Circuit Analysis 483.2.4 DfR at the Concept Stage 483.3 Specifications (Product and Environment Definitions and Concerns) 523.4 Reliability Physics Analysis 553.4.1 Reliability Physics Alternatives 623.4.2 Reliability Physics Models and Examples 643.4.2.1 Arrhenius Equation 643.4.2.2 Eyring Equation 653.4.2.3 Black’s Equation 653.4.2.4 Peck’s Law 663.4.2.5 Norris-Landzberg Equation 663.4.2.6 Creep Mechanisms 683.4.3 Component Selection 683.4.4 Critical Components 703.4.5 Moisture-Sensitivity Level 713.4.6 Temperature-Sensitivity Level 713.4.7 Electrostatic Discharge 723.4.8 Lifetime 733.5 Surviving the Heat Wave 743.6 Redundancy 783.7 Plating Materials: Tin Whiskers 793.8 Derating and Uprating 823.9 Reliability of New Packaging Technologies 843.10 Printed Circuit Boards 863.10.1 Surface Finishes 863.10.1.1 Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 883.10.1.2 Immersion Silver (ImAg) 883.10.1.3 Immersion Tin (ImSn) 903.10.1.4 Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) 903.10.1.5 Lead-Free Hot Air Solder Leveled (HASL) 913.10.2 Laminate Selection 933.10.3 Cracking and Delamination 933.10.4 Plated Through-Holes and Vias 953.10.5 Conductive Anodic Filament 983.10.6 Strain and Flexure Issues 1013.10.7 Pad Cratering 1053.10.8 PCB Buckling 1063.10.9 Electrochemical Migration 1063.10.9.1 Temperature 1073.10.9.2 Relative Humidity 1073.10.9.3 Voltage Bias 1083.10.9.4 Conductor Spacing 1083.10.9.5 Condensation 1133.10.10 Cleanliness 1173.10.10.1 Chloride 1183.10.10.2 Bromide 1183.10.10.3 Cations 1193.10.10.4 Weak Organic Acids 1193.10.10.5 Cleanliness Testing 1193.11 Non-Functional Pads 1203.12 Wearout Mechanisms 1213.12.1 IC Wearout 1213.13 Conformal Coating and Potting 1243.13.1 Silicone 1253.13.2 Polyurethane 1263.13.3 Epoxy 1263.13.4 Acrylic 1263.13.5 Superhydrophobics 127References 1314 Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 1354.1 Introduction 1354.1.1 Elements of a Testing Program 1364.1.2 Know the Environment 1404.2 Standards and Measurements 1424.3 Failure-Inducing Stressors 1434.4 Common Test Types 1434.4.1 Temperature Cycling 1434.4.2 Temperature-Humidity-Bias Testing 1454.4.3 Electrical Connection 1464.4.4 Corrosion Tests 1464.4.5 Power Cycling 1474.4.6 Electrical Loads 1474.4.7 Mechanical Bending 1474.4.8 Random and Sinusoidal Vibration 1484.4.9 Mechanical Shock 1544.4.10 ALT Testing 1544.4.11 Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) 1564.4.12 EMC Testing Dos and Don’ts 1574.5 Test Plan Development 1584.5.1 The Process 1614.5.2 Failure Analysis 1624.5.3 Screening Tests 1624.5.4 Case Study One 1654.5.5 Case Study Two 1674.5.6 Case Study Three 169References 1725 Design for Manufacturability 1735.1 Introduction 1735.2 Overview of Industry Standard Organizations 1775.3 Overview of DfM Processes 1815.3.1 The DfM Process 1825.4 Component Topics 1835.4.1 Part Selection 1845.4.2 Moisture Sensitivity Level (MSL) 1845.4.3 Temperature Sensitivity Level (TSL) 1855.4.4 ESD 1865.4.5 Derating 1875.4.6 Ceramic Capacitor Cracks 1885.4.7 Life Expectancies 1935.4.8 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors 1945.4.9 Resistors 1955.4.10 Tin Whiskers 1965.4.11 Integrated Circuits 1985.5 Printed Circuit Board Topics 1995.5.1 Laminate Selection 1995.5.2 Surface Finish 2005.5.3 Discussion of Different Surface Finishes 2005.5.4 Stackup 2045.5.5 Plated Through-Holes 2065.5.6 Conductive Anodic Filament (CAF) Formation 2065.5.7 Copper Weight 2085.5.8 Pad Geometries 2085.5.9 Trace and Space Separation 2105.5.10 Non-Functional Pads 2115.5.11 Shipping and Handling 2115.5.12 Cleanliness and Contamination 2115.6 Process Materials 2155.6.1 Solder 2155.6.2 Solder Paste 2155.6.3 Flux 2165.6.4 Stencils 2185.6.5 Conformal Coating 2195.6.6 Potting 2235.6.7 Underfill 2245.6.8 Cleaning Materials 2255.6.9 Adhesives 2265.7 Summary: Implementing DfM 227References 2276 Design for Sustainability 2296.1 Introduction 2296.2 Obsolescence Management 2306.2.1 Obsolescence-Resolution Techniques 2306.2.1.1 Industry Standards 2336.2.1.2 Asset Security 2356.3 Long-Term Storage 2366.4 Long-Term Reliability Issues 2386.5 Counterfeit Prevention and Detection Strategies 2436.6 Supplier Selection 2576.6.1 Selecting a Printed Circuit Board Fabricator 2606.6.2 Auditing a Printed Circuit Board Fabricator 2666.6.2.1 Selecting a Contract Manufacturer 2846.6.2.2 Auditing a Contract Manufacturer 2876.6.2.3 Summary 292References 2927 Root Cause Problem-Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 2957.1 Introduction 2957.1.1 Continual Improvement 2967.1.2 Problem-Solving 2977.1.3 Identifying Problems and Improvement Opportunities 2977.1.4 Overview of Industry Standard Organizations 2997.2 Root Cause Failure Analysis Methodology 3017.2.1 Strategies for Selecting an Approach 3017.2.2 The 5Whys Approach 3027.2.3 The Eight Disciplines (8D) 3047.2.4 Shainin Red X: Diagnostic Journey 3087.2.5 Six Sigma 3107.2.6 Physics of Failure 3117.3 Failure Reporting, Analysis, and Corrective Action System (FRACAS) 3127.4 Failure Analysis 3147.4.1 Failure Analysis Techniques 3177.4.1.1 Visual Inspection 3187.4.1.2 Electrical Characterization 3187.4.1.3 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy 3197.4.1.4 X-Ray Microscopy 3217.4.1.5 Thermal Imaging 3237.4.1.6 SQUID Microscopy 3247.4.1.7 Decapsulation 3247.4.1.8 Cross-Sectioning 3257.4.1.9 Scanning Electron Microscope / Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) 3267.4.1.10 Surface/Depth Profiling Techniques: Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS), Auger 3297.4.1.11 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) 3307.4.1.12 Mechanical Testing: Wire Pull, Wire Shear, Solder Ball Shear, Die Shear 3307.4.1.13 Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy FTIR 3307.4.1.14 Ion Chromatography 3327.4.1.15 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 3337.4.1.16 Thermomechanical Analysis / Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA/TMA) 3347.4.1.17 Digital Image Correlation (DIC) 3347.4.1.18 Other Simple Failure Analysis Tools 3347.4.2 Failure Verification 3357.4.3 Corrective Action 3367.4.4 Closing the Failure Report 3377.5 Continuing Education and Improvement Activities 3387.6 Summary: Implementing Root Cause Methodology 338References 3398 Conclusion to Design for Excellence: Bringing It All Together 3418.1 Design for Excellence (DfX) in Electronics Manufacturing 3418.2 Chapter 2: Establishing a Reliability Program 3418.3 Chapter 3: Design for Reliability (DfR) 3438.4 Chapter 4: Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 3448.5 Chapter 5: Design for Manufacturability 3468.6 Chapter 6: Design for Sustainability 3488.7 Chapter 7: Root Cause Problem Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 349Index 351

CHERYL TULKOFF is Director of Corporate Quality at National Instruments, Texas, USA. She has over 22 years of experience in electronics manufacturing focusing on failure analysis and reliability. She’s passionate about accelerating product design and development while improving reliability, optimizing resources, and improving customer satisfaction.GREG CASWELL is a Senior Member of the Technical Staff, DfR Solutions. He has over 50 years of experience in the microelectronics industry. His experience encompasses all aspects of SMT manufacturing, circuit board fabrication, advanced packaging, IC fabrication processes and materials, solder reflow, and RoHS.

Select Guide Rating

• Contributors xviiList of Figures xixList of Tables xxvSeries Foreword xxviiForeword xxixPreface xxxiAcknowledgments xxxiiiAcronyms xxxv1 Introduction to Design for Excellence 11.1 Design for Excellence (DfX) in Electronics Manufacturing 11.2 Chapter 2: Establishing a Reliability Program 21.3 Chapter 3: Design for Reliability (DfR) 31.4 Chapter 4: Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 31.5 Chapter 5: Design for Manufacturability (DfM) 41.6 Chapter 6: Design for Sustainability 41.7 Chapter 7: Root Cause Problem-Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 52 Establishing a Reliability Program 72.1 Introduction 72.2 Best Practices and the Economics of a Reliability Program 92.2.1 Best-in-Class Reliability Program Practices 102.3 Elements of a Reliability Program 122.3.1 Reliability Goals 132.3.2 Defined Use Environments 142.3.3 Software Reliability 152.3.4 General Software Requirements 182.4 Reliability Data 242.4.1 Sources of Reliability Data 272.4.2 Reliability Data from Suppliers 272.5 Analyzing Reliability Data: Commonly Used Probability and Statistics Concepts in Reliability 292.5.1 Reliability Probability in Electronics 302.5.2 Reliability Statistics in Electronics 312.5.2.1 Basic Statistics Assumptions and Caveats 322.5.2.2 Variation Statistics 332.5.2.3 Statistical Distributions Used in Reliability 332.6 Reliability Analysis and Prediction Methods 342.7 Summary 40References 403 Design for Reliability 433.1 Introduction 433.2 DfR and Physics of Failure 453.2.1 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 483.2.2 Fault Tree Analysis 483.2.3 Sneak Circuit Analysis 483.2.4 DfR at the Concept Stage 483.3 Specifications (Product and Environment Definitions and Concerns) 523.4 Reliability Physics Analysis 553.4.1 Reliability Physics Alternatives 623.4.2 Reliability Physics Models and Examples 643.4.2.1 Arrhenius Equation 643.4.2.2 Eyring Equation 653.4.2.3 Black’s Equation 653.4.2.4 Peck’s Law 663.4.2.5 Norris-Landzberg Equation 663.4.2.6 Creep Mechanisms 683.4.3 Component Selection 683.4.4 Critical Components 703.4.5 Moisture-Sensitivity Level 713.4.6 Temperature-Sensitivity Level 713.4.7 Electrostatic Discharge 723.4.8 Lifetime 733.5 Surviving the Heat Wave 743.6 Redundancy 783.7 Plating Materials: Tin Whiskers 793.8 Derating and Uprating 823.9 Reliability of New Packaging Technologies 843.10 Printed Circuit Boards 863.10.1 Surface Finishes 863.10.1.1 Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 883.10.1.2 Immersion Silver (ImAg) 883.10.1.3 Immersion Tin (ImSn) 903.10.1.4 Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) 903.10.1.5 Lead-Free Hot Air Solder Leveled (HASL) 913.10.2 Laminate Selection 933.10.3 Cracking and Delamination 933.10.4 Plated Through-Holes and Vias 953.10.5 Conductive Anodic Filament 983.10.6 Strain and Flexure Issues 1013.10.7 Pad Cratering 1053.10.8 PCB Buckling 1063.10.9 Electrochemical Migration 1063.10.9.1 Temperature 1073.10.9.2 Relative Humidity 1073.10.9.3 Voltage Bias 1083.10.9.4 Conductor Spacing 1083.10.9.5 Condensation 1133.10.10 Cleanliness 1173.10.10.1 Chloride 1183.10.10.2 Bromide 1183.10.10.3 Cations 1193.10.10.4 Weak Organic Acids 1193.10.10.5 Cleanliness Testing 1193.11 Non-Functional Pads 1203.12 Wearout Mechanisms 1213.12.1 IC Wearout 1213.13 Conformal Coating and Potting 1243.13.1 Silicone 1253.13.2 Polyurethane 1263.13.3 Epoxy 1263.13.4 Acrylic 1263.13.5 Superhydrophobics 127References 1314 Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 1354.1 Introduction 1354.1.1 Elements of a Testing Program 1364.1.2 Know the Environment 1404.2 Standards and Measurements 1424.3 Failure-Inducing Stressors 1434.4 Common Test Types 1434.4.1 Temperature Cycling 1434.4.2 Temperature-Humidity-Bias Testing 1454.4.3 Electrical Connection 1464.4.4 Corrosion Tests 1464.4.5 Power Cycling 1474.4.6 Electrical Loads 1474.4.7 Mechanical Bending 1474.4.8 Random and Sinusoidal Vibration 1484.4.9 Mechanical Shock 1544.4.10 ALT Testing 1544.4.11 Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) 1564.4.12 EMC Testing Dos and Don’ts 1574.5 Test Plan Development 1584.5.1 The Process 1614.5.2 Failure Analysis 1624.5.3 Screening Tests 1624.5.4 Case Study One 1654.5.5 Case Study Two 1674.5.6 Case Study Three 169References 1725 Design for Manufacturability 1735.1 Introduction 1735.2 Overview of Industry Standard Organizations 1775.3 Overview of DfM Processes 1815.3.1 The DfM Process 1825.4 Component Topics 1835.4.1 Part Selection 1845.4.2 Moisture Sensitivity Level (MSL) 1845.4.3 Temperature Sensitivity Level (TSL) 1855.4.4 ESD 1865.4.5 Derating 1875.4.6 Ceramic Capacitor Cracks 1885.4.7 Life Expectancies 1935.4.8 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors 1945.4.9 Resistors 1955.4.10 Tin Whiskers 1965.4.11 Integrated Circuits 1985.5 Printed Circuit Board Topics 1995.5.1 Laminate Selection 1995.5.2 Surface Finish 2005.5.3 Discussion of Different Surface Finishes 2005.5.4 Stackup 2045.5.5 Plated Through-Holes 2065.5.6 Conductive Anodic Filament (CAF) Formation 2065.5.7 Copper Weight 2085.5.8 Pad Geometries 2085.5.9 Trace and Space Separation 2105.5.10 Non-Functional Pads 2115.5.11 Shipping and Handling 2115.5.12 Cleanliness and Contamination 2115.6 Process Materials 2155.6.1 Solder 2155.6.2 Solder Paste 2155.6.3 Flux 2165.6.4 Stencils 2185.6.5 Conformal Coating 2195.6.6 Potting 2235.6.7 Underfill 2245.6.8 Cleaning Materials 2255.6.9 Adhesives 2265.7 Summary: Implementing DfM 227References 2276 Design for Sustainability 2296.1 Introduction 2296.2 Obsolescence Management 2306.2.1 Obsolescence-Resolution Techniques 2306.2.1.1 Industry Standards 2336.2.1.2 Asset Security 2356.3 Long-Term Storage 2366.4 Long-Term Reliability Issues 2386.5 Counterfeit Prevention and Detection Strategies 2436.6 Supplier Selection 2576.6.1 Selecting a Printed Circuit Board Fabricator 2606.6.2 Auditing a Printed Circuit Board Fabricator 2666.6.2.1 Selecting a Contract Manufacturer 2846.6.2.2 Auditing a Contract Manufacturer 2876.6.2.3 Summary 292References 2927 Root Cause Problem-Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 2957.1 Introduction 2957.1.1 Continual Improvement 2967.1.2 Problem-Solving 2977.1.3 Identifying Problems and Improvement Opportunities 2977.1.4 Overview of Industry Standard Organizations 2997.2 Root Cause Failure Analysis Methodology 3017.2.1 Strategies for Selecting an Approach 3017.2.2 The 5Whys Approach 3027.2.3 The Eight Disciplines (8D) 3047.2.4 Shainin Red X: Diagnostic Journey 3087.2.5 Six Sigma 3107.2.6 Physics of Failure 3117.3 Failure Reporting, Analysis, and Corrective Action System (FRACAS) 3127.4 Failure Analysis 3147.4.1 Failure Analysis Techniques 3177.4.1.1 Visual Inspection 3187.4.1.2 Electrical Characterization 3187.4.1.3 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy 3197.4.1.4 X-Ray Microscopy 3217.4.1.5 Thermal Imaging 3237.4.1.6 SQUID Microscopy 3247.4.1.7 Decapsulation 3247.4.1.8 Cross-Sectioning 3257.4.1.9 Scanning Electron Microscope / Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) 3267.4.1.10 Surface/Depth Profiling Techniques: Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS), Auger 3297.4.1.11 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) 3307.4.1.12 Mechanical Testing: Wire Pull, Wire Shear, Solder Ball Shear, Die Shear 3307.4.1.13 Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy FTIR 3307.4.1.14 Ion Chromatography 3327.4.1.15 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 3337.4.1.16 Thermomechanical Analysis / Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA/TMA) 3347.4.1.17 Digital Image Correlation (DIC) 3347.4.1.18 Other Simple Failure Analysis Tools 3347.4.2 Failure Verification 3357.4.3 Corrective Action 3367.4.4 Closing the Failure Report 3377.5 Continuing Education and Improvement Activities 3387.6 Summary: Implementing Root Cause Methodology 338References 3398 Conclusion to Design for Excellence: Bringing It All Together 3418.1 Design for Excellence (DfX) in Electronics Manufacturing 3418.2 Chapter 2: Establishing a Reliability Program 3418.3 Chapter 3: Design for Reliability (DfR) 3438.4 Chapter 4: Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 3448.5 Chapter 5: Design for Manufacturability 3468.6 Chapter 6: Design for Sustainability 3488.7 Chapter 7: Root Cause Problem Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 349Index 351

CHERYL TULKOFF is Director of Corporate Quality at National Instruments, Texas, USA. She has over 22 years of experience in electronics manufacturing focusing on failure analysis and reliability. She’s passionate about accelerating product design and development while improving reliability, optimizing resources, and improving customer satisfaction.GREG CASWELL is a Senior Member of the Technical Staff, DfR Solutions. He has over 50 years of experience in the microelectronics industry. His experience encompasses all aspects of SMT manufacturing, circuit board fabrication, advanced packaging, IC fabrication processes and materials, solder reflow, and RoHS.

Select Guide Rating

• Contributors xviiList of Figures xixList of Tables xxvSeries Foreword xxviiForeword xxixPreface xxxiAcknowledgments xxxiiiAcronyms xxxv1 Introduction to Design for Excellence 11.1 Design for Excellence (DfX) in Electronics Manufacturing 11.2 Chapter 2: Establishing a Reliability Program 21.3 Chapter 3: Design for Reliability (DfR) 31.4 Chapter 4: Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 31.5 Chapter 5: Design for Manufacturability (DfM) 41.6 Chapter 6: Design for Sustainability 41.7 Chapter 7: Root Cause Problem-Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 52 Establishing a Reliability Program 72.1 Introduction 72.2 Best Practices and the Economics of a Reliability Program 92.2.1 Best-in-Class Reliability Program Practices 102.3 Elements of a Reliability Program 122.3.1 Reliability Goals 132.3.2 Defined Use Environments 142.3.3 Software Reliability 152.3.4 General Software Requirements 182.4 Reliability Data 242.4.1 Sources of Reliability Data 272.4.2 Reliability Data from Suppliers 272.5 Analyzing Reliability Data: Commonly Used Probability and Statistics Concepts in Reliability 292.5.1 Reliability Probability in Electronics 302.5.2 Reliability Statistics in Electronics 312.5.2.1 Basic Statistics Assumptions and Caveats 322.5.2.2 Variation Statistics 332.5.2.3 Statistical Distributions Used in Reliability 332.6 Reliability Analysis and Prediction Methods 342.7 Summary 40References 403 Design for Reliability 433.1 Introduction 433.2 DfR and Physics of Failure 453.2.1 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 483.2.2 Fault Tree Analysis 483.2.3 Sneak Circuit Analysis 483.2.4 DfR at the Concept Stage 483.3 Specifications (Product and Environment Definitions and Concerns) 523.4 Reliability Physics Analysis 553.4.1 Reliability Physics Alternatives 623.4.2 Reliability Physics Models and Examples 643.4.2.1 Arrhenius Equation 643.4.2.2 Eyring Equation 653.4.2.3 Black’s Equation 653.4.2.4 Peck’s Law 663.4.2.5 Norris-Landzberg Equation 663.4.2.6 Creep Mechanisms 683.4.3 Component Selection 683.4.4 Critical Components 703.4.5 Moisture-Sensitivity Level 713.4.6 Temperature-Sensitivity Level 713.4.7 Electrostatic Discharge 723.4.8 Lifetime 733.5 Surviving the Heat Wave 743.6 Redundancy 783.7 Plating Materials: Tin Whiskers 793.8 Derating and Uprating 823.9 Reliability of New Packaging Technologies 843.10 Printed Circuit Boards 863.10.1 Surface Finishes 863.10.1.1 Organic Solderability Preservative (OSP) 883.10.1.2 Immersion Silver (ImAg) 883.10.1.3 Immersion Tin (ImSn) 903.10.1.4 Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold (ENIG) 903.10.1.5 Lead-Free Hot Air Solder Leveled (HASL) 913.10.2 Laminate Selection 933.10.3 Cracking and Delamination 933.10.4 Plated Through-Holes and Vias 953.10.5 Conductive Anodic Filament 983.10.6 Strain and Flexure Issues 1013.10.7 Pad Cratering 1053.10.8 PCB Buckling 1063.10.9 Electrochemical Migration 1063.10.9.1 Temperature 1073.10.9.2 Relative Humidity 1073.10.9.3 Voltage Bias 1083.10.9.4 Conductor Spacing 1083.10.9.5 Condensation 1133.10.10 Cleanliness 1173.10.10.1 Chloride 1183.10.10.2 Bromide 1183.10.10.3 Cations 1193.10.10.4 Weak Organic Acids 1193.10.10.5 Cleanliness Testing 1193.11 Non-Functional Pads 1203.12 Wearout Mechanisms 1213.12.1 IC Wearout 1213.13 Conformal Coating and Potting 1243.13.1 Silicone 1253.13.2 Polyurethane 1263.13.3 Epoxy 1263.13.4 Acrylic 1263.13.5 Superhydrophobics 127References 1314 Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 1354.1 Introduction 1354.1.1 Elements of a Testing Program 1364.1.2 Know the Environment 1404.2 Standards and Measurements 1424.3 Failure-Inducing Stressors 1434.4 Common Test Types 1434.4.1 Temperature Cycling 1434.4.2 Temperature-Humidity-Bias Testing 1454.4.3 Electrical Connection 1464.4.4 Corrosion Tests 1464.4.5 Power Cycling 1474.4.6 Electrical Loads 1474.4.7 Mechanical Bending 1474.4.8 Random and Sinusoidal Vibration 1484.4.9 Mechanical Shock 1544.4.10 ALT Testing 1544.4.11 Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) 1564.4.12 EMC Testing Dos and Don’ts 1574.5 Test Plan Development 1584.5.1 The Process 1614.5.2 Failure Analysis 1624.5.3 Screening Tests 1624.5.4 Case Study One 1654.5.5 Case Study Two 1674.5.6 Case Study Three 169References 1725 Design for Manufacturability 1735.1 Introduction 1735.2 Overview of Industry Standard Organizations 1775.3 Overview of DfM Processes 1815.3.1 The DfM Process 1825.4 Component Topics 1835.4.1 Part Selection 1845.4.2 Moisture Sensitivity Level (MSL) 1845.4.3 Temperature Sensitivity Level (TSL) 1855.4.4 ESD 1865.4.5 Derating 1875.4.6 Ceramic Capacitor Cracks 1885.4.7 Life Expectancies 1935.4.8 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors 1945.4.9 Resistors 1955.4.10 Tin Whiskers 1965.4.11 Integrated Circuits 1985.5 Printed Circuit Board Topics 1995.5.1 Laminate Selection 1995.5.2 Surface Finish 2005.5.3 Discussion of Different Surface Finishes 2005.5.4 Stackup 2045.5.5 Plated Through-Holes 2065.5.6 Conductive Anodic Filament (CAF) Formation 2065.5.7 Copper Weight 2085.5.8 Pad Geometries 2085.5.9 Trace and Space Separation 2105.5.10 Non-Functional Pads 2115.5.11 Shipping and Handling 2115.5.12 Cleanliness and Contamination 2115.6 Process Materials 2155.6.1 Solder 2155.6.2 Solder Paste 2155.6.3 Flux 2165.6.4 Stencils 2185.6.5 Conformal Coating 2195.6.6 Potting 2235.6.7 Underfill 2245.6.8 Cleaning Materials 2255.6.9 Adhesives 2265.7 Summary: Implementing DfM 227References 2276 Design for Sustainability 2296.1 Introduction 2296.2 Obsolescence Management 2306.2.1 Obsolescence-Resolution Techniques 2306.2.1.1 Industry Standards 2336.2.1.2 Asset Security 2356.3 Long-Term Storage 2366.4 Long-Term Reliability Issues 2386.5 Counterfeit Prevention and Detection Strategies 2436.6 Supplier Selection 2576.6.1 Selecting a Printed Circuit Board Fabricator 2606.6.2 Auditing a Printed Circuit Board Fabricator 2666.6.2.1 Selecting a Contract Manufacturer 2846.6.2.2 Auditing a Contract Manufacturer 2876.6.2.3 Summary 292References 2927 Root Cause Problem-Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 2957.1 Introduction 2957.1.1 Continual Improvement 2967.1.2 Problem-Solving 2977.1.3 Identifying Problems and Improvement Opportunities 2977.1.4 Overview of Industry Standard Organizations 2997.2 Root Cause Failure Analysis Methodology 3017.2.1 Strategies for Selecting an Approach 3017.2.2 The 5Whys Approach 3027.2.3 The Eight Disciplines (8D) 3047.2.4 Shainin Red X: Diagnostic Journey 3087.2.5 Six Sigma 3107.2.6 Physics of Failure 3117.3 Failure Reporting, Analysis, and Corrective Action System (FRACAS) 3127.4 Failure Analysis 3147.4.1 Failure Analysis Techniques 3177.4.1.1 Visual Inspection 3187.4.1.2 Electrical Characterization 3187.4.1.3 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy 3197.4.1.4 X-Ray Microscopy 3217.4.1.5 Thermal Imaging 3237.4.1.6 SQUID Microscopy 3247.4.1.7 Decapsulation 3247.4.1.8 Cross-Sectioning 3257.4.1.9 Scanning Electron Microscope / Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) 3267.4.1.10 Surface/Depth Profiling Techniques: Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS), Auger 3297.4.1.11 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) 3307.4.1.12 Mechanical Testing: Wire Pull, Wire Shear, Solder Ball Shear, Die Shear 3307.4.1.13 Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy FTIR 3307.4.1.14 Ion Chromatography 3327.4.1.15 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 3337.4.1.16 Thermomechanical Analysis / Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA/TMA) 3347.4.1.17 Digital Image Correlation (DIC) 3347.4.1.18 Other Simple Failure Analysis Tools 3347.4.2 Failure Verification 3357.4.3 Corrective Action 3367.4.4 Closing the Failure Report 3377.5 Continuing Education and Improvement Activities 3387.6 Summary: Implementing Root Cause Methodology 338References 3398 Conclusion to Design for Excellence: Bringing It All Together 3418.1 Design for Excellence (DfX) in Electronics Manufacturing 3418.2 Chapter 2: Establishing a Reliability Program 3418.3 Chapter 3: Design for Reliability (DfR) 3438.4 Chapter 4: Design for the Use Environment: Reliability Testing and Test Plan Development 3448.5 Chapter 5: Design for Manufacturability 3468.6 Chapter 6: Design for Sustainability 3488.7 Chapter 7: Root Cause Problem Solving, Failure Analysis, and Continual Improvement Techniques 349Index 351