EditorsFrancesca M. Kerton, Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Ning Yan, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Series EditorChristian Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium

• List of Contributors xiSeries Preface xiiiPreface xv1 Overview of Ocean and Aquatic Sources for the Production of Chemicals and Materials 1Francesca M. Kerton and Ning Yan1.1 Introduction 11.2 Shellfish-Based Biomass 31.2.1 Crustacean Shells 31.2.2 Mollusc Shells 71.3 Finfish-Based Biomass 91.4 Plant-Based Biomass 121.5 Summary and Outlook 13References 142 Production and Conversion of Green Macroalgae (Ulva spp.) 19Shuntaro Tsubaki, Wenrong Zhu and Masanori Hiraoka2.1 Production of Ulva Biomass 192.1.1 Land-Based Tank Culture in K̄ochi 202.1.2 Improvement for More Intensive Culture 252.2 Conversion of Ulva Biomass 272.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Reaction of Biomass 282.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Conversion of Ulva Biomass 292.3 Conclusions 36References 363 A New Wave of Research Interest in Marine Macroalgae for Chemicals and Fuels: Challenges and Potentials 43Ravi S. Baghel, Vaibhav A. Mantri and C.R.K. Reddy3.1 Introduction 433.2 Macroalgal Feedstock for Chemicals 443.3 Marine Macroalgae as a Biorefinery Feedstock 453.4 Marine Macroalgal Biomass as an Energy Feedstock 463.4.1 Bioethanol 473.4.2 Biodiesel 483.4.3 Biobutanol 483.4.4 Bio-oil 553.5 Advances in Cultivation Technology 553.6 Marine Algal Cultivation for CO2 Sequestration 563.7 Opportunities, Challenges and Conclusions 57References 584 Kappaphycus alvarezii: A Potential Sustainable Resource for Fertilizers and Fuels 65Dibyendu Mondal and Kamalesh Prasad4.1 Introduction 654.2 Composition and Processing of Kappaphycus alvarezii 664.3 Simultaneous Production of Liquid Fertilizer (κ-Sap) and κ-Carrageenan from Fresh Kappaphycus alvarezii Seaweed 684.4 κ-Sap as Potential Plant Stimulant 694.5 Manipulation of κ-Sap for Sustainable Biomass Intensification of Maize 714.6 Bioethanol Production from Kappaphycus alvarezii 724.6.1 Pretreatment of Freshly Harvested Biomass 744.6.2 Hydrolysis of the Dry Biomass to Obtain Fermentable Sugars 744.6.3 Pretreatment of Hydrolysate to Reduce the Concentration of Fermentation Inhibitory Components 744.6.4 Enzymatic Fermentation of the Hydrolysate to Yield Ethanol 764.6.5 Purification of Ethanol from Fermentation Broth 774.7 Fuel Intermediates and Useful Chemical from Kappaphycus alvarezii 774.8 Environmental Impact of Fuel and Fertilizers Production from Kappaphycus alvarezii 794.9 Conclusion and Future Prospect 79Acknowledgement 79References 805 Microalgae Bioproduction – Feeds, Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Polymers 83Clifford R. Merz and Kevan L. Main5.1 Introduction 835.2 Microalgae and Bioproduction Methods 855.2.1 Microalgae Groups Considered 855.2.2 Bioproduction of Microalgae – Methods 865.3 Microalgae Feedstock Products and Coproducts 945.3.1 Microalgae as Animal Feed 945.3.2 Microalgae as a Human Food Source 955.3.3 Microalgae in Nutraceuticals 965.3.4 Biopolymers from Microalgae 985.4 Conclusion – The Path Forward 102Acknowledgments 103References 1036 Innovations in Crustacean Processing: Bioproduction of Chitin and Its Derivatives 113Heather Manuel6.1 Introduction 1136.2 Innovations in Crustacean Processing 1156.2.1 Conventional Processing Technologies 1156.2.2 Innovations in Crustacean Processing 1226.3 Utilization of Marine By-Products 1286.3.1 Processing Technologies for Crustacean By-Products 1296.3.2 A Biorefinery Approach for Value-Chain Optimization of Crustacean Biomass Waste 1306.4 Bioproduction of Chitin and Its Derivatives 1326.4.1 Background 1326.4.2 Isolation and Extraction of Chitin and Chitosan 1346.4.3 Non-chemical Structural Modifications of Chitin and Chitosan 1396.5 Conclusions 141References 1437 Recent Progress in the Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals and Materials 151Bin Li and Xindong Mu7.1 Structure, Source and Properties of Chitin/Chitosan 1517.2 Isolation and Purification of Chitin/Chitosan 1537.3 Derivatives of Chitin/Chitosan 1557.4 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals and Materials 1567.4.1 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals 1567.4.2 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Materials 1707.5 Closing Remark and Perspectives 179References 1808 Characterization and Utilization of Waste Streams from Mollusc Aquaculture and Fishing Industries 189Jennifer N. Murphy and Francesca M. Kerton8.1 Introduction 1898.2 Processing and Characterization of Mollusc Shells 1928.2.1 Processing Technologies 1928.2.2 Characterization of Shells 1958.3 Applications of Mollusc Shells 1998.3.1 Soil Amendment 2018.3.2 Treatment of Metal Contamination and Acid Mine Drainage 2028.3.3 Phosphate Removal and Water Purification 2088.3.4 Building Materials 2128.3.5 Mollusc-Derived Calcium Oxide in Catalysis 2198.4 Conclusions 224References 2259 Fish Processing Waste Streams as a Feedstock for Fuels 229Kelly Hawboldt and Ibraheem Adeoti9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Fish Processing By-Product 2309.3 Chemical and Physical Properties of Crude Fish Oil 2319.3.1 Chemical Composition of Crude Fish Oil 2339.4 Oil Recovery Processes and Parameters 2369.4.1 Physical/Thermal Separation Processes 2369.4.2 Chemical Extraction Processes 2389.4.3 Biological/Chemical Hydrolysis and Fermentation 2449.4.4 Purification 2459.4.5 Preservation of Feedstock and the Recovered Oil 2469.5 Fuel Properties of Crude and Refined Fish Oils 2479.5.1 Rheological Properties 2479.5.2 Chemical Properties Affecting Fuel Quality 2489.5.3 Thermal Properties 2499.5.4 Other Fuel Properties 2509.6 Performance of Crude Fish Oil as a Fuel 2519.7 Upgrading Marine Crude Bio-Oil 2519.7.1 Types of Refined Fish Oil Products 2529.7.2 Transesterification 2559.7.3 Pyrolysis 2589.7.4 Microemulsification 2589.7.5 Alternative Processes 2599.8 Emission Comparison for Bio-Oils 2599.8.1 Crude Fish Oil 2619.8.2 Fish Biodiesel 2629.8.3 Biogas from Fish Waste 2639.8.4 Fish Biofuels from Other Processes 2649.9 Comparison of Crude Oil and Refined Oil Performance as a Fuel 2659.10 Comparison of Fish Biofuels 2689.11 Summary 268References 269Index 277

EditorsFrancesca M. Kerton, Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Ning Yan, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Series EditorChristian Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium

• List of Contributors xiSeries Preface xiiiPreface xv1 Overview of Ocean and Aquatic Sources for the Production of Chemicals and Materials 1Francesca M. Kerton and Ning Yan1.1 Introduction 11.2 Shellfish-Based Biomass 31.2.1 Crustacean Shells 31.2.2 Mollusc Shells 71.3 Finfish-Based Biomass 91.4 Plant-Based Biomass 121.5 Summary and Outlook 13References 142 Production and Conversion of Green Macroalgae (Ulva spp.) 19Shuntaro Tsubaki, Wenrong Zhu and Masanori Hiraoka2.1 Production of Ulva Biomass 192.1.1 Land-Based Tank Culture in K̄ochi 202.1.2 Improvement for More Intensive Culture 252.2 Conversion of Ulva Biomass 272.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Reaction of Biomass 282.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Conversion of Ulva Biomass 292.3 Conclusions 36References 363 A New Wave of Research Interest in Marine Macroalgae for Chemicals and Fuels: Challenges and Potentials 43Ravi S. Baghel, Vaibhav A. Mantri and C.R.K. Reddy3.1 Introduction 433.2 Macroalgal Feedstock for Chemicals 443.3 Marine Macroalgae as a Biorefinery Feedstock 453.4 Marine Macroalgal Biomass as an Energy Feedstock 463.4.1 Bioethanol 473.4.2 Biodiesel 483.4.3 Biobutanol 483.4.4 Bio-oil 553.5 Advances in Cultivation Technology 553.6 Marine Algal Cultivation for CO2 Sequestration 563.7 Opportunities, Challenges and Conclusions 57References 584 Kappaphycus alvarezii: A Potential Sustainable Resource for Fertilizers and Fuels 65Dibyendu Mondal and Kamalesh Prasad4.1 Introduction 654.2 Composition and Processing of Kappaphycus alvarezii 664.3 Simultaneous Production of Liquid Fertilizer (κ-Sap) and κ-Carrageenan from Fresh Kappaphycus alvarezii Seaweed 684.4 κ-Sap as Potential Plant Stimulant 694.5 Manipulation of κ-Sap for Sustainable Biomass Intensification of Maize 714.6 Bioethanol Production from Kappaphycus alvarezii 724.6.1 Pretreatment of Freshly Harvested Biomass 744.6.2 Hydrolysis of the Dry Biomass to Obtain Fermentable Sugars 744.6.3 Pretreatment of Hydrolysate to Reduce the Concentration of Fermentation Inhibitory Components 744.6.4 Enzymatic Fermentation of the Hydrolysate to Yield Ethanol 764.6.5 Purification of Ethanol from Fermentation Broth 774.7 Fuel Intermediates and Useful Chemical from Kappaphycus alvarezii 774.8 Environmental Impact of Fuel and Fertilizers Production from Kappaphycus alvarezii 794.9 Conclusion and Future Prospect 79Acknowledgement 79References 805 Microalgae Bioproduction – Feeds, Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Polymers 83Clifford R. Merz and Kevan L. Main5.1 Introduction 835.2 Microalgae and Bioproduction Methods 855.2.1 Microalgae Groups Considered 855.2.2 Bioproduction of Microalgae – Methods 865.3 Microalgae Feedstock Products and Coproducts 945.3.1 Microalgae as Animal Feed 945.3.2 Microalgae as a Human Food Source 955.3.3 Microalgae in Nutraceuticals 965.3.4 Biopolymers from Microalgae 985.4 Conclusion – The Path Forward 102Acknowledgments 103References 1036 Innovations in Crustacean Processing: Bioproduction of Chitin and Its Derivatives 113Heather Manuel6.1 Introduction 1136.2 Innovations in Crustacean Processing 1156.2.1 Conventional Processing Technologies 1156.2.2 Innovations in Crustacean Processing 1226.3 Utilization of Marine By-Products 1286.3.1 Processing Technologies for Crustacean By-Products 1296.3.2 A Biorefinery Approach for Value-Chain Optimization of Crustacean Biomass Waste 1306.4 Bioproduction of Chitin and Its Derivatives 1326.4.1 Background 1326.4.2 Isolation and Extraction of Chitin and Chitosan 1346.4.3 Non-chemical Structural Modifications of Chitin and Chitosan 1396.5 Conclusions 141References 1437 Recent Progress in the Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals and Materials 151Bin Li and Xindong Mu7.1 Structure, Source and Properties of Chitin/Chitosan 1517.2 Isolation and Purification of Chitin/Chitosan 1537.3 Derivatives of Chitin/Chitosan 1557.4 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals and Materials 1567.4.1 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals 1567.4.2 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Materials 1707.5 Closing Remark and Perspectives 179References 1808 Characterization and Utilization of Waste Streams from Mollusc Aquaculture and Fishing Industries 189Jennifer N. Murphy and Francesca M. Kerton8.1 Introduction 1898.2 Processing and Characterization of Mollusc Shells 1928.2.1 Processing Technologies 1928.2.2 Characterization of Shells 1958.3 Applications of Mollusc Shells 1998.3.1 Soil Amendment 2018.3.2 Treatment of Metal Contamination and Acid Mine Drainage 2028.3.3 Phosphate Removal and Water Purification 2088.3.4 Building Materials 2128.3.5 Mollusc-Derived Calcium Oxide in Catalysis 2198.4 Conclusions 224References 2259 Fish Processing Waste Streams as a Feedstock for Fuels 229Kelly Hawboldt and Ibraheem Adeoti9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Fish Processing By-Product 2309.3 Chemical and Physical Properties of Crude Fish Oil 2319.3.1 Chemical Composition of Crude Fish Oil 2339.4 Oil Recovery Processes and Parameters 2369.4.1 Physical/Thermal Separation Processes 2369.4.2 Chemical Extraction Processes 2389.4.3 Biological/Chemical Hydrolysis and Fermentation 2449.4.4 Purification 2459.4.5 Preservation of Feedstock and the Recovered Oil 2469.5 Fuel Properties of Crude and Refined Fish Oils 2479.5.1 Rheological Properties 2479.5.2 Chemical Properties Affecting Fuel Quality 2489.5.3 Thermal Properties 2499.5.4 Other Fuel Properties 2509.6 Performance of Crude Fish Oil as a Fuel 2519.7 Upgrading Marine Crude Bio-Oil 2519.7.1 Types of Refined Fish Oil Products 2529.7.2 Transesterification 2559.7.3 Pyrolysis 2589.7.4 Microemulsification 2589.7.5 Alternative Processes 2599.8 Emission Comparison for Bio-Oils 2599.8.1 Crude Fish Oil 2619.8.2 Fish Biodiesel 2629.8.3 Biogas from Fish Waste 2639.8.4 Fish Biofuels from Other Processes 2649.9 Comparison of Crude Oil and Refined Oil Performance as a Fuel 2659.10 Comparison of Fish Biofuels 2689.11 Summary 268References 269Index 277

EditorsFrancesca M. Kerton, Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Ning Yan, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore Series EditorChristian Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium

• List of Contributors xiSeries Preface xiiiPreface xv1 Overview of Ocean and Aquatic Sources for the Production of Chemicals and Materials 1Francesca M. Kerton and Ning Yan1.1 Introduction 11.2 Shellfish-Based Biomass 31.2.1 Crustacean Shells 31.2.2 Mollusc Shells 71.3 Finfish-Based Biomass 91.4 Plant-Based Biomass 121.5 Summary and Outlook 13References 142 Production and Conversion of Green Macroalgae (Ulva spp.) 19Shuntaro Tsubaki, Wenrong Zhu and Masanori Hiraoka2.1 Production of Ulva Biomass 192.1.1 Land-Based Tank Culture in K̄ochi 202.1.2 Improvement for More Intensive Culture 252.2 Conversion of Ulva Biomass 272.2.1 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Reaction of Biomass 282.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Conversion of Ulva Biomass 292.3 Conclusions 36References 363 A New Wave of Research Interest in Marine Macroalgae for Chemicals and Fuels: Challenges and Potentials 43Ravi S. Baghel, Vaibhav A. Mantri and C.R.K. Reddy3.1 Introduction 433.2 Macroalgal Feedstock for Chemicals 443.3 Marine Macroalgae as a Biorefinery Feedstock 453.4 Marine Macroalgal Biomass as an Energy Feedstock 463.4.1 Bioethanol 473.4.2 Biodiesel 483.4.3 Biobutanol 483.4.4 Bio-oil 553.5 Advances in Cultivation Technology 553.6 Marine Algal Cultivation for CO2 Sequestration 563.7 Opportunities, Challenges and Conclusions 57References 584 Kappaphycus alvarezii: A Potential Sustainable Resource for Fertilizers and Fuels 65Dibyendu Mondal and Kamalesh Prasad4.1 Introduction 654.2 Composition and Processing of Kappaphycus alvarezii 664.3 Simultaneous Production of Liquid Fertilizer (κ-Sap) and κ-Carrageenan from Fresh Kappaphycus alvarezii Seaweed 684.4 κ-Sap as Potential Plant Stimulant 694.5 Manipulation of κ-Sap for Sustainable Biomass Intensification of Maize 714.6 Bioethanol Production from Kappaphycus alvarezii 724.6.1 Pretreatment of Freshly Harvested Biomass 744.6.2 Hydrolysis of the Dry Biomass to Obtain Fermentable Sugars 744.6.3 Pretreatment of Hydrolysate to Reduce the Concentration of Fermentation Inhibitory Components 744.6.4 Enzymatic Fermentation of the Hydrolysate to Yield Ethanol 764.6.5 Purification of Ethanol from Fermentation Broth 774.7 Fuel Intermediates and Useful Chemical from Kappaphycus alvarezii 774.8 Environmental Impact of Fuel and Fertilizers Production from Kappaphycus alvarezii 794.9 Conclusion and Future Prospect 79Acknowledgement 79References 805 Microalgae Bioproduction – Feeds, Foods, Nutraceuticals, and Polymers 83Clifford R. Merz and Kevan L. Main5.1 Introduction 835.2 Microalgae and Bioproduction Methods 855.2.1 Microalgae Groups Considered 855.2.2 Bioproduction of Microalgae – Methods 865.3 Microalgae Feedstock Products and Coproducts 945.3.1 Microalgae as Animal Feed 945.3.2 Microalgae as a Human Food Source 955.3.3 Microalgae in Nutraceuticals 965.3.4 Biopolymers from Microalgae 985.4 Conclusion – The Path Forward 102Acknowledgments 103References 1036 Innovations in Crustacean Processing: Bioproduction of Chitin and Its Derivatives 113Heather Manuel6.1 Introduction 1136.2 Innovations in Crustacean Processing 1156.2.1 Conventional Processing Technologies 1156.2.2 Innovations in Crustacean Processing 1226.3 Utilization of Marine By-Products 1286.3.1 Processing Technologies for Crustacean By-Products 1296.3.2 A Biorefinery Approach for Value-Chain Optimization of Crustacean Biomass Waste 1306.4 Bioproduction of Chitin and Its Derivatives 1326.4.1 Background 1326.4.2 Isolation and Extraction of Chitin and Chitosan 1346.4.3 Non-chemical Structural Modifications of Chitin and Chitosan 1396.5 Conclusions 141References 1437 Recent Progress in the Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals and Materials 151Bin Li and Xindong Mu7.1 Structure, Source and Properties of Chitin/Chitosan 1517.2 Isolation and Purification of Chitin/Chitosan 1537.3 Derivatives of Chitin/Chitosan 1557.4 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals and Materials 1567.4.1 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Chemicals 1567.4.2 Utilization of Chitin/Chitosan for Materials 1707.5 Closing Remark and Perspectives 179References 1808 Characterization and Utilization of Waste Streams from Mollusc Aquaculture and Fishing Industries 189Jennifer N. Murphy and Francesca M. Kerton8.1 Introduction 1898.2 Processing and Characterization of Mollusc Shells 1928.2.1 Processing Technologies 1928.2.2 Characterization of Shells 1958.3 Applications of Mollusc Shells 1998.3.1 Soil Amendment 2018.3.2 Treatment of Metal Contamination and Acid Mine Drainage 2028.3.3 Phosphate Removal and Water Purification 2088.3.4 Building Materials 2128.3.5 Mollusc-Derived Calcium Oxide in Catalysis 2198.4 Conclusions 224References 2259 Fish Processing Waste Streams as a Feedstock for Fuels 229Kelly Hawboldt and Ibraheem Adeoti9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Fish Processing By-Product 2309.3 Chemical and Physical Properties of Crude Fish Oil 2319.3.1 Chemical Composition of Crude Fish Oil 2339.4 Oil Recovery Processes and Parameters 2369.4.1 Physical/Thermal Separation Processes 2369.4.2 Chemical Extraction Processes 2389.4.3 Biological/Chemical Hydrolysis and Fermentation 2449.4.4 Purification 2459.4.5 Preservation of Feedstock and the Recovered Oil 2469.5 Fuel Properties of Crude and Refined Fish Oils 2479.5.1 Rheological Properties 2479.5.2 Chemical Properties Affecting Fuel Quality 2489.5.3 Thermal Properties 2499.5.4 Other Fuel Properties 2509.6 Performance of Crude Fish Oil as a Fuel 2519.7 Upgrading Marine Crude Bio-Oil 2519.7.1 Types of Refined Fish Oil Products 2529.7.2 Transesterification 2559.7.3 Pyrolysis 2589.7.4 Microemulsification 2589.7.5 Alternative Processes 2599.8 Emission Comparison for Bio-Oils 2599.8.1 Crude Fish Oil 2619.8.2 Fish Biodiesel 2629.8.3 Biogas from Fish Waste 2639.8.4 Fish Biofuels from Other Processes 2649.9 Comparison of Crude Oil and Refined Oil Performance as a Fuel 2659.10 Comparison of Fish Biofuels 2689.11 Summary 268References 269Index 277