Edward Laws is a professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences in the College of the Coast & Environment at Louisiana State University and a founding team member and investigator in the Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. In addition to the earlier editions of Aquatic Pollution, he is the author of El Nino and the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery (1996) and Mathematical Methods for Oceanographers (Wiley, 1997).

• Preface xv1 Fundamental Concepts 1Simple Food Chain Theory 1Ecological Pyramids 3Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6Food Chain Magnification 9Food Webs 10Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12Questions 13References 152 Photosynthesis 17Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 22Nutrient Enrichment Experiments 26Long Island Bays 30Canadian Experimental Lakes 31Nitrogen versus Phosphorus Limitation 33Questions 37References 383 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43Physical Properties of Water 43Water Column Stability and Overturning 45The Importance of Overturning 48Seasonal Production Cycles 49Trophic Status 50Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51Estuaries: A Special Case 52Chesapeake Bay 55The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64Questions 67References 684 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71Case Study 1: Lake Washington 72History of Eutrophication 73Effects of Sewage Diversion 76Nutrient Limitation 79Oxygen Depletion 80Water Clarity 83Cyanobacteria 84Theoretical Predictions 85Case Study 2: Lake Erie 88The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land‐Use Modifications 89The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94Sediment in Land Runoff 96Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 96Remedial Efforts 98Toxic Substances 98Eutrophication 99Prospects for Lake Erie 105Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay 114Physical Setting 114The Coral Reefs 116Urbanization of the Watershed 116Changes in Land Runoff 116Sewage Disposal 119Effects of Sewage Disposal 120Response to Sewage Diversion 121Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 123Questions 126References 1285 Nonpoint Source Pollution 133Definitions 133Composition of Land Runoff 134Types of Sewer Systems 136Corrective Measures 138Use of Settling Basins 138Ground Recharge Basins 139Storage in Underflow Tunnels or Tanks 140Minimizing Runoff 141Summary 143A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida 143Correctives 150Questions 155References 1566 Sewage Treatment 159Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment 159Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 161Trickling Filters 161Activated Sludge 162Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatment 163The Anaerobic Digester 164Tertiary Treatment 165Phosphorus Removal 166Nitrogen Removal 167Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 168Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 169Land Application of Sewage 170Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 172Limiting Factors 179Use of Sewage Sludge 180Unconventional Sewage Treatment 183Detergent Phosphates 185Questions 188References 1907 Pathogens in Natural Waters 195Sources of Pathogens 197Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 198Bacterial Pathogens 199Protozoan Pathogens 206Viral Pathogens 208Helminths 212Tests for Pathogens 213Treatment of Public Water Supplies 219Removal of Suspended Solids 219Filtration 219Chlorination 220Alternatives to Chlorination 221Impact of Treatment 222Questions 222References 2248 Toxicology 229The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 229Kinds of Toxicity 231Sublethal Effects 231Reproduction 232Development and Growth 234Behavior 237Determination of Toxicity 237Acute Toxicity Determination 238Chronic Toxicity Determination 239Median Survival Times 240Incipient Lethal Levels 241Sublethal Effects 242Water Quality Standards 243Acute Effects 243Chronic Toxicity 244Acute/Chronic Ratios 245Toxicity to Plants 247The Two-Number Criterion 247Complicating Factors 248Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 248Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 250Conditioning and Acclimation 252Interactions between Toxic Substances 253Public Health 257Noncarcinogenic Effects 257Application to Cadmium 260Carcinogenic Effects 262Protection of Wildlife 264Commentary 264Questions 265References 2689 Industrial Pollution 273The Oxygen Sag 273Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 276The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 279Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 282Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 282Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 283Survey of Water Pollution Problems 285Response to the EPA Survey 286Present Status of the Industry 288The Pulp and Paper Industry 290Steps in the Production of Paper 292Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 295Suspended Solids 296Dissolved Organics 298Toxic Substances 299Wastewater Treatment 300A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 301Commentary 304Questions 306References 30710 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 311Classification of Pesticides 313Mode of Action 315Pesticide Use 316Public Health 316Use of DDT to Control Malaria 316Agriculture 319Forestry 321Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 322Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 322DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 323Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use 324The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 325DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 326DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 328DDT Causes Cancer 330Implications 331Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 332Pesticide Effects on Birds 336Field Observations 337Laboratory Studies 339Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 342Pest Resistance 343Mechanisms of Resistance 344The Cost of Pest Resistance 344Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 345Biological Control 345Natural Predators and Parasites 345Pathogens and Natural Toxins 346Genetic Control 347Resistant Plants 347Sterile Males 348Chemical Control 350Integrated Pest Management 351Commentary 353EPA Hearings, 13 January, 1972. Afternoon Session 355Persistent Organic Pollutants 359Polychlorinated Biphenyls 359Problems with PCBs 361Persistence of PCBs 363Questions 365References 36711 Thermal Pollution and Power Plants 375Power Plant Design 376Water Quality Criteria 377Cooling Water System Characteristics 378Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 379Sublethal Effects 381Commentary 383A Case Study – The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 383The Study Area 383The Power Plant 385Effects on Biota 386Modifications 388Commentary 389Correctives 389Cooling Canals 390Cooling Towers 390Problems 390Internal Plant Kills 392Screen Impingements 392Inner Plant Kills 395Commentary 397Correctives 398Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 400Cogeneration Power Plants 400Agriculture 402Aquaculture 403Other Uses 406Questions 407References 40812 Metals 413The Question of Biological Magnification 416Case Studies 417Mercury 418Production and Uses 418Fluxes to the Environment 422Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 426Minamata Bay: A Case Study 432Seafood Consumption 438Cadmium 439Distribution, Production, and Uses 439Emissions to the Environment 442Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445Toxicity 445Itai‐Itai Disease: A Case Study 447Correctives and Prospects for the Future 451Lead 453Production and Use 453Emissions 457Toxicology 462Commentary 465Questions 469References 47113 Oil Pollution 479Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 480Natural Sources 480Marine Seeps 480Anthropogenic Sources 481Platforms 481Atmospheric Deposition 482Produced Waters 482Pipeline Spills 482Tanker Spills 482Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 483Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 485Atmospheric Deposition (From Tankers) 485Land‐Based Runoff 485Recreational Marine Vessels 485Spills (Non‐tankers) 485Operational Discharges (Vessels >100 GT) 486Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 486Atmospheric Deposition 486Aircraft Dumping 486Commentary 486The Genesis of Oil 488Sedimentation 488Metamorphosis 489Migration 489What Is Oil? 490Alkanes: Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 490Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 491Aromatics 491Toxicology 493Oiling and Ingestion 493Weathering 496Lethal and Sublethal Effects 498Human Health 500Case Studies 501Exxon Valdez 501The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 501Cleanup 502Fate of Spilled Oil 503Effects on Organisms 503Summary 507Deepwater Horizon 508Buzzards Bay 510Summary 513Correctives 514Prevention 514Cleanup 515Offloading 515Burning 516Chemical Dispersal 516Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 517Sinking 517Bioremediation 518Summary 519Oil Fingerprinting 520Commentary 522Questions 523References 52414 Radioactivity 529Physical Background 529Radiation Toxicology 532The No Threshold and Linear Dose–Response Hypotheses 534Health Effect Estimates 536Current Levels of Exposure 538Importance of Certain Radionuclides 541Effects on Aquatic Systems 542Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 544Nuclear Fusion 550Radiation Releases by Power Plants 552Routine Radionuclide Releases 553Accidents 556The NRX Accident 556Windscale 557The SL‐1 Incident 559The Fermi Reactor Accident 560The Three Mile Island Incident 562Chernobyl 563Fukushima Daiichi 565Summary 565Waste Disposal 569Types of Radioactive Waste 569History of Disposal 569The Search for Long‐Term Disposal Sites 573Transmutation 576Uranium Mine Wastes 576Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 579Commentary 581Questions 582References 58415 Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 589Acid Deposition 589Acid Rain 590History of the Acid Deposition Problem 591Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 594Acid Deposition Toxicology 595Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 598Correctives 600So X Removal 601Pretreatment 601Conversion 602Coal Gasification 602Coal Liquefaction 602Methanol Production 602Combustion 603Fluidized Bed Combustion 603Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 603Post‐combustion 603Stack Gas Scrubbing 603Electron Beam Method 604No X Removal 604Pretreatment and Conversion 604Combustion 604Post‐combustion 605Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 605Comments 605Legal Aspects 606A Case Study: The Netherlands 608Commentary 610Ocean Acidification 610Solutions 617Questions 618References 61816 Groundwater Pollution 623Reliance on Groundwater 623General Aquifer Information 624Overdrafting 625The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 627Septic Tanks 627Saltwater Contamination 627Fracking 628Sewage 628Mining Activities 629Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 629Toxic Chemicals 629Illegal Disposal 632Magnitude of the Problem 634A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 636Legal Considerations 641Rcra 641Sdwa 642Cwa 643Cercla 644Other Legislation 646Enforcement 647Correctives 648Cleanup 648Prevention 650The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 653Questions 654References 65517 Plastics in the Sea 659The Nature of the Problem 659Effects 661Aesthetics 661Ingestion 662Entanglement 664Ghost Fishing 665Other Causes of Entanglement 667Damage to Vessels 668Correctives 668Marpol Annex V 668Other Legislation 671Degradable Plastic 673Solutions Through Technology 673Education 674Questions 675References 676Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 681References 683Aquatic Pollution 685Answers to Questions 685References 705Glossary 707Index 733

Edward Laws is a professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences in the College of the Coast & Environment at Louisiana State University and a founding team member and investigator in the Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. In addition to the earlier editions of Aquatic Pollution, he is the author of El Nino and the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery (1996) and Mathematical Methods for Oceanographers (Wiley, 1997).

• Preface xv1 Fundamental Concepts 1Simple Food Chain Theory 1Ecological Pyramids 3Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6Food Chain Magnification 9Food Webs 10Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12Questions 13References 152 Photosynthesis 17Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 22Nutrient Enrichment Experiments 26Long Island Bays 30Canadian Experimental Lakes 31Nitrogen versus Phosphorus Limitation 33Questions 37References 383 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43Physical Properties of Water 43Water Column Stability and Overturning 45The Importance of Overturning 48Seasonal Production Cycles 49Trophic Status 50Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51Estuaries: A Special Case 52Chesapeake Bay 55The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64Questions 67References 684 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71Case Study 1: Lake Washington 72History of Eutrophication 73Effects of Sewage Diversion 76Nutrient Limitation 79Oxygen Depletion 80Water Clarity 83Cyanobacteria 84Theoretical Predictions 85Case Study 2: Lake Erie 88The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land‐Use Modifications 89The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94Sediment in Land Runoff 96Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 96Remedial Efforts 98Toxic Substances 98Eutrophication 99Prospects for Lake Erie 105Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay 114Physical Setting 114The Coral Reefs 116Urbanization of the Watershed 116Changes in Land Runoff 116Sewage Disposal 119Effects of Sewage Disposal 120Response to Sewage Diversion 121Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 123Questions 126References 1285 Nonpoint Source Pollution 133Definitions 133Composition of Land Runoff 134Types of Sewer Systems 136Corrective Measures 138Use of Settling Basins 138Ground Recharge Basins 139Storage in Underflow Tunnels or Tanks 140Minimizing Runoff 141Summary 143A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida 143Correctives 150Questions 155References 1566 Sewage Treatment 159Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment 159Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 161Trickling Filters 161Activated Sludge 162Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatment 163The Anaerobic Digester 164Tertiary Treatment 165Phosphorus Removal 166Nitrogen Removal 167Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 168Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 169Land Application of Sewage 170Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 172Limiting Factors 179Use of Sewage Sludge 180Unconventional Sewage Treatment 183Detergent Phosphates 185Questions 188References 1907 Pathogens in Natural Waters 195Sources of Pathogens 197Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 198Bacterial Pathogens 199Protozoan Pathogens 206Viral Pathogens 208Helminths 212Tests for Pathogens 213Treatment of Public Water Supplies 219Removal of Suspended Solids 219Filtration 219Chlorination 220Alternatives to Chlorination 221Impact of Treatment 222Questions 222References 2248 Toxicology 229The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 229Kinds of Toxicity 231Sublethal Effects 231Reproduction 232Development and Growth 234Behavior 237Determination of Toxicity 237Acute Toxicity Determination 238Chronic Toxicity Determination 239Median Survival Times 240Incipient Lethal Levels 241Sublethal Effects 242Water Quality Standards 243Acute Effects 243Chronic Toxicity 244Acute/Chronic Ratios 245Toxicity to Plants 247The Two-Number Criterion 247Complicating Factors 248Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 248Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 250Conditioning and Acclimation 252Interactions between Toxic Substances 253Public Health 257Noncarcinogenic Effects 257Application to Cadmium 260Carcinogenic Effects 262Protection of Wildlife 264Commentary 264Questions 265References 2689 Industrial Pollution 273The Oxygen Sag 273Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 276The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 279Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 282Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 282Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 283Survey of Water Pollution Problems 285Response to the EPA Survey 286Present Status of the Industry 288The Pulp and Paper Industry 290Steps in the Production of Paper 292Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 295Suspended Solids 296Dissolved Organics 298Toxic Substances 299Wastewater Treatment 300A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 301Commentary 304Questions 306References 30710 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 311Classification of Pesticides 313Mode of Action 315Pesticide Use 316Public Health 316Use of DDT to Control Malaria 316Agriculture 319Forestry 321Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 322Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 322DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 323Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use 324The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 325DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 326DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 328DDT Causes Cancer 330Implications 331Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 332Pesticide Effects on Birds 336Field Observations 337Laboratory Studies 339Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 342Pest Resistance 343Mechanisms of Resistance 344The Cost of Pest Resistance 344Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 345Biological Control 345Natural Predators and Parasites 345Pathogens and Natural Toxins 346Genetic Control 347Resistant Plants 347Sterile Males 348Chemical Control 350Integrated Pest Management 351Commentary 353EPA Hearings, 13 January, 1972. Afternoon Session 355Persistent Organic Pollutants 359Polychlorinated Biphenyls 359Problems with PCBs 361Persistence of PCBs 363Questions 365References 36711 Thermal Pollution and Power Plants 375Power Plant Design 376Water Quality Criteria 377Cooling Water System Characteristics 378Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 379Sublethal Effects 381Commentary 383A Case Study – The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 383The Study Area 383The Power Plant 385Effects on Biota 386Modifications 388Commentary 389Correctives 389Cooling Canals 390Cooling Towers 390Problems 390Internal Plant Kills 392Screen Impingements 392Inner Plant Kills 395Commentary 397Correctives 398Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 400Cogeneration Power Plants 400Agriculture 402Aquaculture 403Other Uses 406Questions 407References 40812 Metals 413The Question of Biological Magnification 416Case Studies 417Mercury 418Production and Uses 418Fluxes to the Environment 422Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 426Minamata Bay: A Case Study 432Seafood Consumption 438Cadmium 439Distribution, Production, and Uses 439Emissions to the Environment 442Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445Toxicity 445Itai‐Itai Disease: A Case Study 447Correctives and Prospects for the Future 451Lead 453Production and Use 453Emissions 457Toxicology 462Commentary 465Questions 469References 47113 Oil Pollution 479Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 480Natural Sources 480Marine Seeps 480Anthropogenic Sources 481Platforms 481Atmospheric Deposition 482Produced Waters 482Pipeline Spills 482Tanker Spills 482Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 483Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 485Atmospheric Deposition (From Tankers) 485Land‐Based Runoff 485Recreational Marine Vessels 485Spills (Non‐tankers) 485Operational Discharges (Vessels >100 GT) 486Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 486Atmospheric Deposition 486Aircraft Dumping 486Commentary 486The Genesis of Oil 488Sedimentation 488Metamorphosis 489Migration 489What Is Oil? 490Alkanes: Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 490Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 491Aromatics 491Toxicology 493Oiling and Ingestion 493Weathering 496Lethal and Sublethal Effects 498Human Health 500Case Studies 501Exxon Valdez 501The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 501Cleanup 502Fate of Spilled Oil 503Effects on Organisms 503Summary 507Deepwater Horizon 508Buzzards Bay 510Summary 513Correctives 514Prevention 514Cleanup 515Offloading 515Burning 516Chemical Dispersal 516Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 517Sinking 517Bioremediation 518Summary 519Oil Fingerprinting 520Commentary 522Questions 523References 52414 Radioactivity 529Physical Background 529Radiation Toxicology 532The No Threshold and Linear Dose–Response Hypotheses 534Health Effect Estimates 536Current Levels of Exposure 538Importance of Certain Radionuclides 541Effects on Aquatic Systems 542Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 544Nuclear Fusion 550Radiation Releases by Power Plants 552Routine Radionuclide Releases 553Accidents 556The NRX Accident 556Windscale 557The SL‐1 Incident 559The Fermi Reactor Accident 560The Three Mile Island Incident 562Chernobyl 563Fukushima Daiichi 565Summary 565Waste Disposal 569Types of Radioactive Waste 569History of Disposal 569The Search for Long‐Term Disposal Sites 573Transmutation 576Uranium Mine Wastes 576Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 579Commentary 581Questions 582References 58415 Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 589Acid Deposition 589Acid Rain 590History of the Acid Deposition Problem 591Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 594Acid Deposition Toxicology 595Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 598Correctives 600So X Removal 601Pretreatment 601Conversion 602Coal Gasification 602Coal Liquefaction 602Methanol Production 602Combustion 603Fluidized Bed Combustion 603Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 603Post‐combustion 603Stack Gas Scrubbing 603Electron Beam Method 604No X Removal 604Pretreatment and Conversion 604Combustion 604Post‐combustion 605Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 605Comments 605Legal Aspects 606A Case Study: The Netherlands 608Commentary 610Ocean Acidification 610Solutions 617Questions 618References 61816 Groundwater Pollution 623Reliance on Groundwater 623General Aquifer Information 624Overdrafting 625The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 627Septic Tanks 627Saltwater Contamination 627Fracking 628Sewage 628Mining Activities 629Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 629Toxic Chemicals 629Illegal Disposal 632Magnitude of the Problem 634A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 636Legal Considerations 641Rcra 641Sdwa 642Cwa 643Cercla 644Other Legislation 646Enforcement 647Correctives 648Cleanup 648Prevention 650The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 653Questions 654References 65517 Plastics in the Sea 659The Nature of the Problem 659Effects 661Aesthetics 661Ingestion 662Entanglement 664Ghost Fishing 665Other Causes of Entanglement 667Damage to Vessels 668Correctives 668Marpol Annex V 668Other Legislation 671Degradable Plastic 673Solutions Through Technology 673Education 674Questions 675References 676Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 681References 683Aquatic Pollution 685Answers to Questions 685References 705Glossary 707Index 733

Edward Laws is a professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences in the College of the Coast & Environment at Louisiana State University and a founding team member and investigator in the Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. In addition to the earlier editions of Aquatic Pollution, he is the author of El Nino and the Peruvian Anchovy Fishery (1996) and Mathematical Methods for Oceanographers (Wiley, 1997).

• Preface xv1 Fundamental Concepts 1Simple Food Chain Theory 1Ecological Pyramids 3Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6Food Chain Magnification 9Food Webs 10Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12Questions 13References 152 Photosynthesis 17Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 22Nutrient Enrichment Experiments 26Long Island Bays 30Canadian Experimental Lakes 31Nitrogen versus Phosphorus Limitation 33Questions 37References 383 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43Physical Properties of Water 43Water Column Stability and Overturning 45The Importance of Overturning 48Seasonal Production Cycles 49Trophic Status 50Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51Estuaries: A Special Case 52Chesapeake Bay 55The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64Questions 67References 684 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71Case Study 1: Lake Washington 72History of Eutrophication 73Effects of Sewage Diversion 76Nutrient Limitation 79Oxygen Depletion 80Water Clarity 83Cyanobacteria 84Theoretical Predictions 85Case Study 2: Lake Erie 88The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land‐Use Modifications 89The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94Sediment in Land Runoff 96Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 96Remedial Efforts 98Toxic Substances 98Eutrophication 99Prospects for Lake Erie 105Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay 114Physical Setting 114The Coral Reefs 116Urbanization of the Watershed 116Changes in Land Runoff 116Sewage Disposal 119Effects of Sewage Disposal 120Response to Sewage Diversion 121Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 123Questions 126References 1285 Nonpoint Source Pollution 133Definitions 133Composition of Land Runoff 134Types of Sewer Systems 136Corrective Measures 138Use of Settling Basins 138Ground Recharge Basins 139Storage in Underflow Tunnels or Tanks 140Minimizing Runoff 141Summary 143A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida 143Correctives 150Questions 155References 1566 Sewage Treatment 159Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment 159Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 161Trickling Filters 161Activated Sludge 162Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatment 163The Anaerobic Digester 164Tertiary Treatment 165Phosphorus Removal 166Nitrogen Removal 167Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 168Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 169Land Application of Sewage 170Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 172Limiting Factors 179Use of Sewage Sludge 180Unconventional Sewage Treatment 183Detergent Phosphates 185Questions 188References 1907 Pathogens in Natural Waters 195Sources of Pathogens 197Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 198Bacterial Pathogens 199Protozoan Pathogens 206Viral Pathogens 208Helminths 212Tests for Pathogens 213Treatment of Public Water Supplies 219Removal of Suspended Solids 219Filtration 219Chlorination 220Alternatives to Chlorination 221Impact of Treatment 222Questions 222References 2248 Toxicology 229The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 229Kinds of Toxicity 231Sublethal Effects 231Reproduction 232Development and Growth 234Behavior 237Determination of Toxicity 237Acute Toxicity Determination 238Chronic Toxicity Determination 239Median Survival Times 240Incipient Lethal Levels 241Sublethal Effects 242Water Quality Standards 243Acute Effects 243Chronic Toxicity 244Acute/Chronic Ratios 245Toxicity to Plants 247The Two-Number Criterion 247Complicating Factors 248Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 248Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 250Conditioning and Acclimation 252Interactions between Toxic Substances 253Public Health 257Noncarcinogenic Effects 257Application to Cadmium 260Carcinogenic Effects 262Protection of Wildlife 264Commentary 264Questions 265References 2689 Industrial Pollution 273The Oxygen Sag 273Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 276The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 279Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 282Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 282Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 283Survey of Water Pollution Problems 285Response to the EPA Survey 286Present Status of the Industry 288The Pulp and Paper Industry 290Steps in the Production of Paper 292Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 295Suspended Solids 296Dissolved Organics 298Toxic Substances 299Wastewater Treatment 300A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 301Commentary 304Questions 306References 30710 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 311Classification of Pesticides 313Mode of Action 315Pesticide Use 316Public Health 316Use of DDT to Control Malaria 316Agriculture 319Forestry 321Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 322Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 322DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 323Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use 324The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 325DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 326DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 328DDT Causes Cancer 330Implications 331Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 332Pesticide Effects on Birds 336Field Observations 337Laboratory Studies 339Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 342Pest Resistance 343Mechanisms of Resistance 344The Cost of Pest Resistance 344Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 345Biological Control 345Natural Predators and Parasites 345Pathogens and Natural Toxins 346Genetic Control 347Resistant Plants 347Sterile Males 348Chemical Control 350Integrated Pest Management 351Commentary 353EPA Hearings, 13 January, 1972. Afternoon Session 355Persistent Organic Pollutants 359Polychlorinated Biphenyls 359Problems with PCBs 361Persistence of PCBs 363Questions 365References 36711 Thermal Pollution and Power Plants 375Power Plant Design 376Water Quality Criteria 377Cooling Water System Characteristics 378Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 379Sublethal Effects 381Commentary 383A Case Study – The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 383The Study Area 383The Power Plant 385Effects on Biota 386Modifications 388Commentary 389Correctives 389Cooling Canals 390Cooling Towers 390Problems 390Internal Plant Kills 392Screen Impingements 392Inner Plant Kills 395Commentary 397Correctives 398Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 400Cogeneration Power Plants 400Agriculture 402Aquaculture 403Other Uses 406Questions 407References 40812 Metals 413The Question of Biological Magnification 416Case Studies 417Mercury 418Production and Uses 418Fluxes to the Environment 422Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 426Minamata Bay: A Case Study 432Seafood Consumption 438Cadmium 439Distribution, Production, and Uses 439Emissions to the Environment 442Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445Toxicity 445Itai‐Itai Disease: A Case Study 447Correctives and Prospects for the Future 451Lead 453Production and Use 453Emissions 457Toxicology 462Commentary 465Questions 469References 47113 Oil Pollution 479Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 480Natural Sources 480Marine Seeps 480Anthropogenic Sources 481Platforms 481Atmospheric Deposition 482Produced Waters 482Pipeline Spills 482Tanker Spills 482Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 483Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 485Atmospheric Deposition (From Tankers) 485Land‐Based Runoff 485Recreational Marine Vessels 485Spills (Non‐tankers) 485Operational Discharges (Vessels >100 GT) 486Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 486Atmospheric Deposition 486Aircraft Dumping 486Commentary 486The Genesis of Oil 488Sedimentation 488Metamorphosis 489Migration 489What Is Oil? 490Alkanes: Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 490Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 491Aromatics 491Toxicology 493Oiling and Ingestion 493Weathering 496Lethal and Sublethal Effects 498Human Health 500Case Studies 501Exxon Valdez 501The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 501Cleanup 502Fate of Spilled Oil 503Effects on Organisms 503Summary 507Deepwater Horizon 508Buzzards Bay 510Summary 513Correctives 514Prevention 514Cleanup 515Offloading 515Burning 516Chemical Dispersal 516Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 517Sinking 517Bioremediation 518Summary 519Oil Fingerprinting 520Commentary 522Questions 523References 52414 Radioactivity 529Physical Background 529Radiation Toxicology 532The No Threshold and Linear Dose–Response Hypotheses 534Health Effect Estimates 536Current Levels of Exposure 538Importance of Certain Radionuclides 541Effects on Aquatic Systems 542Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 544Nuclear Fusion 550Radiation Releases by Power Plants 552Routine Radionuclide Releases 553Accidents 556The NRX Accident 556Windscale 557The SL‐1 Incident 559The Fermi Reactor Accident 560The Three Mile Island Incident 562Chernobyl 563Fukushima Daiichi 565Summary 565Waste Disposal 569Types of Radioactive Waste 569History of Disposal 569The Search for Long‐Term Disposal Sites 573Transmutation 576Uranium Mine Wastes 576Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 579Commentary 581Questions 582References 58415 Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 589Acid Deposition 589Acid Rain 590History of the Acid Deposition Problem 591Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 594Acid Deposition Toxicology 595Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 598Correctives 600So X Removal 601Pretreatment 601Conversion 602Coal Gasification 602Coal Liquefaction 602Methanol Production 602Combustion 603Fluidized Bed Combustion 603Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 603Post‐combustion 603Stack Gas Scrubbing 603Electron Beam Method 604No X Removal 604Pretreatment and Conversion 604Combustion 604Post‐combustion 605Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 605Comments 605Legal Aspects 606A Case Study: The Netherlands 608Commentary 610Ocean Acidification 610Solutions 617Questions 618References 61816 Groundwater Pollution 623Reliance on Groundwater 623General Aquifer Information 624Overdrafting 625The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 627Septic Tanks 627Saltwater Contamination 627Fracking 628Sewage 628Mining Activities 629Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 629Toxic Chemicals 629Illegal Disposal 632Magnitude of the Problem 634A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 636Legal Considerations 641Rcra 641Sdwa 642Cwa 643Cercla 644Other Legislation 646Enforcement 647Correctives 648Cleanup 648Prevention 650The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 653Questions 654References 65517 Plastics in the Sea 659The Nature of the Problem 659Effects 661Aesthetics 661Ingestion 662Entanglement 664Ghost Fishing 665Other Causes of Entanglement 667Damage to Vessels 668Correctives 668Marpol Annex V 668Other Legislation 671Degradable Plastic 673Solutions Through Technology 673Education 674Questions 675References 676Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 681References 683Aquatic Pollution 685Answers to Questions 685References 705Glossary 707Index 733