Air Pollution Prevention and Control

Christian Kennes is the editor of Air Pollution Prevention and Control: Bioreactors and Bioenergy, published by Wiley.Maria C. Veiga is the editor of Air Pollution Prevention and Control: Bioreactors and Bioenergy, published by Wiley.

"Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through professionals/practitioners." (Choice, 1 February 2014)"This book is an excellent compilation of engineering and scientific data pertaining to biological systems for both pollution control and energy production, providing real-world scientific information and scholarly research." (Chemical Engineering Progress, 1 August 2013)"I highly recommend the landmark and all encompassing book Air Pollution Prevention and Control: Bioreactors and Bioenergy edited by Christian Kennes and Maria C. Veiga, to any students, faculty, researchers, in environmental engineering, biotechnology, and applied microbiology, business leaders in industries facing air pollution challenges, and government policy makers seeking alternative concepts for air pollution control. This book provides the most proven and widely accepted biotechnological solutions to any air pollutant based problems." (Blog Business World, 10 June 2013)

• List of Contributors xixPreface xviiI Fundamentals and Microbiological Aspects 11 Introduction to Air Pollution 3Christian Kennes and María C. Veiga1.1 Introduction 31.2 Types and sources of air pollutants 31.2.1 Particulate matter 51.2.2 Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide 61.2.3 Sulphur oxides 71.2.4 Nitrogen oxides 71.2.5 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 91.2.6 Odours 101.2.7 Ozone 111.2.8 Calculating concentrations of gaseous pollutants 111.3 Air pollution control technologies 111.3.1 Particulate matter 111.3.2 Volatile organic and inorganic compounds 121.3.3 Environmentally friendly bioenergy 171.4 Conclusions 17References 172 Biodegradation and Bioconversion of Volatile Pollutants 19Christian Kennes, Haris N. Abubackar and María C. Veiga2.1 Introduction 192.2 Biodegradation of volatile compounds 202.2.1 Inorganic compounds 202.2.2 Organic compounds 212.3 Mass balance calculations 242.4 Bioconversion of volatile compounds 252.4.1 Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide 252.4.2 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 262.5 Conclusions 27References 273 Identification and Characterization of Microbial Communities in Bioreactors 31Luc Malhautier, Léa Cabrol, Sandrine Bayle and Jean-Louis Fanlo3.1 Introduction 313.2 Molecular techniques to characterize the microbial communities in bioreactors 323.2.1 Quantification of the community members 323.2.2 Assessment of microbial community diversity and structure 343.2.3 Determination of the microbial community composition 393.2.4 Techniques linking microbial identity to ecological function 403.2.5 Microarray techniques 413.2.6 Synthesis 423.3 The link of microbial community structure with ecological function in engineered ecosystems 423.3.1 Introduction 423.3.2 Temporal and spatial dynamics of the microbial community structure under stationary conditions in bioreactors 433.3.3 Impact of environmental disturbances on the microbial community structure within bioreactors 453.4 Conclusions 47References 47II Bioreactors for Air Pollution Control 574 Biofilters 59Eldon R. Rene, María C. Veiga and Christian Kennes4.1 Introduction 594.2 Historical perspective of biofilters 594.3 Process fundamentals 604.4 Operation parameters of biofilters 624.4.1 Empty-bed residence time (EBRT) 624.4.2 Volumetric loading rate (VLR) 634.4.3 Mass loading rate (MLR) 634.4.4 Elimination capacity (EC) 634.4.5 Removal efficiency (RE) 634.4.6 CO2 production rate (PCO2) 634.5 Design considerations 644.5.1 Reactor sizing 644.5.2 Irrigation system 664.5.3 Leachate collection and disposal 664.6 Start-up of biofilters 684.7 Parameters affecting biofilter performance 704.7.1 Inlet concentrations and pollutant load 704.7.2 Composition of waste gas and interaction patterns 714.7.3 Biomass support medium 724.7.4 Temperature 754.7.5 pH 784.7.6 Oxygen availability 794.7.7 Nutrient availability 804.7.8 Moisture content and relative humidity 814.7.9 Polluted gas flow direction 834.7.10 Carbon dioxide generation rates 834.7.11 Pressure drop 854.8 Role of microorganisms and fungal growth in biofilters 874.9 Dynamic loading pattern and starvation conditions in biofilters 894.10 On-line monitoring and control (intelligent) systems for biofilters 934.10.1 On-line flame ionization detector (FID) and photo-ionization detector (PID) analysers 934.10.2 On-line proton transfer reaction–mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) 944.10.3 Intelligent moisture control systems 944.10.4 Differential neural network (DNN) sensor 954.11 Mathematical expressions for biofilters 954.12 Artificial neural network-based models 974.12.1 Back error propagation (BEP) algorithm 974.12.2 Important considerations during neural network modelling 994.12.3 Neural network model development for biofilters and specific examples 1034.13 Fuzzy logic-based models 1054.14 Adaptive neuro-fuzzy interference system-based models for biofilters 1084.15 Conclusions 111References 1115 Biotrickling Filters 121Christian Kennes and María C. Veiga5.1 Introduction 1215.2 Main characteristics of BTFs 1225.2.1 General aspects 1225.2.2 Packing material 1235.2.3 Biomass and biofilm 1265.2.4 Trickling phase 1265.2.5 Gas EBRT 1285.2.6 Liquid and gas velocities 1295.3 Pressure drop and clogging 1305.3.1 Excess biomass accumulation 1305.3.2 Accumulation of solid chemicals 1335.4 Full-scale applications and scaling up 1345.5 Conclusions 135References 1356 Bioscrubbers 139Pierre Le Cloirec and Philippe Humeau6.1 Introduction 1396.2 General approach of bioscrubbers 1406.3 Operating conditions 1416.3.1 Absorption column 1426.3.2 Biodegradation step – activated sludge reactor 1436.4 Removing families of pollutants 1436.4.1 Volatile organic compound (VOC) removal 1446.4.2 Odor control 1466.4.3 Sulfur compounds degradation 1466.5 Treatment of by-products generated by bioscrubbers 1486.6 Conclusions and trends 148References 1497 Membrane Bioreactors 155Raquel Lebrero, Raúl Muñoz, Amit Kumar and Herman Van Langenhove7.1 Introduction 1557.2 Membrane basics 1567.2.1 Types of membranes 1567.2.2 Membrane materials 1597.2.3 Membrane characterization parameters 1597.2.4 Mass transport through the membrane 1607.3 Reactor configurations 1637.3.1 Flat-sheet membranes 1647.3.2 Tubular configuration membranes 1657.3.3 Membrane-based bioreactors 1667.4 Microbiology 1667.5 Performance of membrane bioreactors 1687.5.1 Membrane-based bioreactors 1687.5.2 Bioreactor operation: Influence of the operating parameters 1697.6 Membrane bioreactor modeling 1707.7 Applications of membrane bioreactors in biological waste-gas treatment 1727.7.1 Comparison with other technologies 1727.8 New Applications: CO2 – NOX Sequestration 1737.8.1 NOX Removal 1737.8.2 CO2 sequestration 1767.9 Future needs 177References 1788 Two-Phase Partitioning Bioreactors 185Hala Fam and Andrew J. Daugulis8.1 Introduction 1858.2 Features of the sequestering phase – selection criteria 1868.3 Liquid two-phase partitioning bioreactors (TPPBs) 1878.3.1 Performance 1878.3.2 Mass transfer 1898.3.3 Modeling and design elements 1948.3.4 Limitations and research opportunities 1968.4 Solids as the partitioning phase 1978.4.1 Rationale 1978.4.2 Performance 1978.4.3 Mass transfer 1988.4.4 Modeling and design elements 1998.4.5 Limitations and research opportunities 200References 2009 Rotating Biological Contactors 207R. Ravi, K. Sarayu, S. Sandhya and T. Swaminathan9.1 Introduction 2079.1.1 Limitations of conventional gas-phase bioreactors 2089.2 The rotating biological contactor 2099.2.1 Modified RBCs for waste-gas treatment 2109.3 Studies on removal of dichloromethane in modified RBCs 2139.3.1 Comparison of different bioreactors (biofilters, biotrickling filters, and modified RBCs) 2159.3.2 Studies on removal of benzene and xylene in modified RBCs 2169.3.3 Microbiological studies of biofilms 217References 21910 Innovative Bioreactors and Two-Stage Systems 221Eldon R. Rene, María C. Veiga and Christian Kennes10.1 Introduction 22110.2 Innovative bioreactor configurations 22210.2.1 Planted biofilter 22210.2.2 Rotatory-switching biofilter 22310.2.3 Tubular biofilter 22410.2.4 Fluidized-bed bioreactor 22510.2.5 Airlift and bubble column bioreactors 22710.2.6 Monolith bioreactor 22910.2.7 Foam emulsion bioreactor 23110.2.8 Fibrous bed bioreactor 23310.2.9 Horizontal-flow biofilm reactor 23410.3 Two-stage systems for waste gas treatment 23510.3.1 Adsorption pre-treatment plus bioreactor 23510.3.2 Bioreactor plus adsorption polishing 23710.3.3 UV photocatalytic reactor plus bioreactor 23710.3.4 Bioreactor plus bioreactor 24010.4 Conclusions 242References 243III Bioprocesses for Specific Applications 24711 Bioprocesses for the Removal of Volatile Sulfur Compounds from Gas Streams 249Albert Janssen, Pim L.F. van den Bosch, Robert C. van Leerdam, and Marco de Graaff11.1 Introduction 24911.2 Toxicity of VOSCs to animals and humans 25011.3 Biological formation of VOSCs 25111.4 VOSC-producing and VOSC-emitting industries 25211.4.1 VOSCs produced from biological processes 25211.4.2 Chemical processes and industrial applications 25211.4.3 Oil and gas 25311.5 Microbial degradation of VOSCs 25311.5.1 Aerobic degradation 25311.5.2 Anaerobic degradation 25411.5.3 Degradation via sulfate reduction 25511.5.4 Anaerobic degradation of higher thiols 25511.5.5 Inhibition of microorganisms 25611.6 Treatment technologies for gas streams containing volatile sulfur compounds 25611.6.1 Biofilters 25611.6.2 Bioscrubbers 25811.7 Operating experience from biological gas treatment systems 26111.7.1 THIOPAQ process for H2S removal 26611.8 Future developments 266References 26612 Bioprocesses for the Removal of Nitrogen Oxides 275Yaomin Jin, Lin Guo, Osvaldo D. Frutos, María C. Veiga and Christian Kennes12.1 Introduction 27512.2 NOx and N2O emissions at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) 27612.2.1 Nitrification 27612.2.2 Denitrification 27612.2.3 Parameters that affect the formation of nitrogen oxides 27712.3 Recent developments in bioprocesses for the removal of nitrogen oxides 27912.3.1 NOx removal 27912.3.2 N2 O removal 28512.4 Challenges in NOx treatment technologies 28712.5 Conclusions 288References 28813 Biogas Upgrading 293M. Estefanía López, Eldon R. Rene, María C. Veiga and Christian Kennes13.1 Introduction 29313.2 Biotechnologies for biogas desulphurization 29413.2.1 Environmental aspects 29413.2.2 The natural sulphur cycle and sulphur-oxidizing bacteria 29413.2.3 Bioreactor configurations for hydrogen sulphide removal at laboratory scale 29513.2.4 Case studies of biogas desulphurization in full-scale systems 30213.3 Removal of mercaptans 30613.4 Removal of ammonia and nitrogen compounds 30713.5 Removal of carbon dioxide 30813.6 Removal of siloxanes 30913.7 Comparison between biological and non-biological methods 31113.8 Conclusions 311References 315IV Environmentally-friendly Bioenergy 31914 Biogas 321Marta Ben, Christian Kennes and María C. Veiga14.1 Introduction 32114.2 Anaerobic digestion 32114.2.1 A brief history 32114.2.2 Overview of the anaerobic digestion process 32314.3 Substrates 32814.3.1 Agricultural and farming wastes 32814.3.2 Industrial wastes 32914.3.3 Urban wastes 33314.3.4 Sewage sludge 33314.4 Biogas 33414.4.1 Biogas composition 33414.4.2 Substrate influence on biogas composition 33514.5 Bioreactors 33514.5.1 Batch reactors 33714.5.2 Continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) 33714.5.3 Continuously stirred tank reactor with solids recycle (CSTR/SR) 33714.5.4 Plug-flow reactor 33714.5.5 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) 33714.5.6 Attached film digester 33814.5.7 Two-phase digester 33814.6 Environmental impact of biogas 33814.7 Conclusions 339References 33915 Biohydrogen 345Bikram K. Nayak, Soumya Pandit and Debabrata Das15.1 Introduction 34515.1.1 Current status of hydrogen production and present use of hydrogen 34615.1.2 Biohydrogen from biomass: present status 34615.2 Environmental impacts of biohydrogen production 34615.2.1 Air pollution due to conventional hydrocarbon-based fuel combustion 34615.2.2 Biohydrogen, a zero-carbon fuel as a potential alternative 34815.3 Properties and production of hydrogen 34815.3.1 Properties of zero-carbon fuel 34815.3.2 Biohydrogen production processes 35015.4 Potential applications of hydrogen as a zero-carbon fuel 36315.4.1 Transport sector 36315.4.2 Fuel cells 36615.5 Policies and economics of hydrogen production 37115.5.1 Economics of biohydrogen production 37215.6 Issues and barriers 37315.7 Future prospects 37415.8 Conclusion 375Acknowledgements 375References 37516 Catalytic Biodiesel Production 383Zhenzhong Wen, Xinhai Yu, Shan-Tung Tu and Jinyue Yan16.1 Introduction 38316.2 Trends in biodiesel production 38416.2.1 Reactors 38416.2.2 Catalysts 38916.3 Challenges for biodiesel production at industrial scale 39316.3.1 Economic analysis 39316.3.2 Ecological considerations 39316.4 Recommendations 39416.5 Conclusions 395References 39517 Microalgal Biodiesel 399Hugo Pereira, Helena M. Amaro, Nadpi G. Katkam, Luísa Barreira, A. Catarina Guedes, João Varela and F. Xavier Malcata17.1 Introduction 39917.2 Wild versus modified microalgae 40217.3 Lipid extraction and purification 40417.3.1 Mechanical methods 40517.3.2 Chemical methods 40617.4 Lipid transesterification 40717.4.1 Acid-catalyzed transesterification 40817.4.2 Base-catalyzed transesterification 40817.4.3 Heterogeneous acid/base-catalyzed transesterification 41017.4.4 Lipase-catalyzed transesterification 41017.4.5 Ionic liquid-catalyzed reactions 41117.5 Economic considerations 41217.5.1 Competition between microalgal biodiesel and biofuels 41217.5.2 Main challenges to biodiesel production from microalgae 41317.5.3 Economics of biodiesel production 41417.6 Environmental considerations 41517.6.1 Uptake of carbon dioxide 41617.6.2 Upgrade of wastewaters 41617.6.3 Management of microalgal biomass 41717.7 Final considerations 41817.7.1 Current state 41817.7.2 Future perspectives 418Acknowledgements 420References 42018 Bioethanol 431Johan W. van Groenestijn, Haris N. Abubackar, María C. Veiga and Christian Kennes18.1 Introduction 43118.2 Fermentation of lignocellulosic saccharides to ethanol 43218.2.1 Raw materials 43218.2.2 Pretreatment 43418.2.3 Production of inhibitors 43918.2.4 Hydrolysis 43918.2.5 Fermentation 44018.3 Syngas conversion to ethanol – biological route 44118.3.1 Sources of carbon monoxide 44118.3.2 The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway involved in the bioconversion of carbon monoxide 44518.3.3 Parameters affecting the bioconversion of carbon monoxide to ethanol 44618.4 Demonstration projects 45018.5 Comparison of conventional fuels and bioethanol (corn, cellulosic, syngas) on air pollution 45118.6 Key problems and future research needs 45518.7 Conclusions 456Acknowledgements 456References 456V Case Studies 46519 Biotrickling Filtration of Waste Gases from the Viscose Industry 467Andreas Willers, Christian Dressler and Christian Kennes19.1 The waste-gas situation in the viscose industry 46719.1.1 The viscose process 46719.1.2 Overview of emission points 46819.1.3 Technical solutions to treat the emissions 46919.1.4 Potential to use biotrickling filters in the viscose industry 47019.2 Biological CS2 and H2 S oxidation 47119.3 Case study of biological waste-gas treatment in the casing industry 47219.3.1 Products from viscose 47219.3.2 Process flowsheet of fibre-reinforced cellulose casing (FRCC) 47319.3.3 Alternatives for biotrickling filter configurations 47319.3.4 Characteristics of the CaseTech plant 47519.3.5 Description of the BioGat installation 47519.3.6 Performance of the BioGat process 47519.4 Conclusions 484References 48420 Biotrickling Filters for Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds from Air in the Coating Sector 485Carlos Lafita, F. Javier Álvarez-Hornos, Carmen Gabaldón, Vicente Martínez-Soria and Josep-Manuel Penya-Roja20.1 Introduction 48520.2 Case study 1: VOC removal in a furniture facility 48620.2.1 Characterization of the waste-gas sources 48620.2.2 Design and operation of the system 48720.2.3 Performance data 48820.2.4 Economic aspects 49020.3 Case study 2: VOC removal in a plastic coating facility 49120.3.1 Characterization of the waste-gas sources 49220.3.2 Design and operation of the system 49220.3.3 Performance data 49320.3.4 Economic aspects 495Acknowledgements 496References 49621 Industrial Bioscrubbers for the Food and Waste Industries 497Pierre Le Cloirec and Philippe Humeau21.1 Introduction 49721.2 Food industry emissions 49821.2.1 Identification and quantification of waste-gas emissions 49821.2.2 Choice of the technology 49821.2.3 Design and operating conditions 50021.2.4 Performance of the system 50321.3 Bioscrubbing treatment of gaseous emissions from waste composting 50321.3.1 Waste-gas emissions: nature, concentrations, and flow 50321.3.2 Choice of the gas treatment process 50421.3.3 Design and operating conditions 50521.3.4 Gas collection system 50721.3.5 Gas treatment system 50821.3.6 Performance of the overall system 50921.4 Conclusions and perspectives 510References 51022 Desulfurization of biogas in biotrickling filters 513David Gabriel, Marc A. Deshusses and Xavier Gamisans22.1 Introduction 51322.2 Microbiology and stoichiometry of sulfide oxidation 51422.2.1 Microbiology of sulfide oxidation 51422.2.2 Stoichiometry of sulfide biological oxidation 51522.3 Case study background and description of biotrickling filter 51722.3.1 Site description 51722.3.2 Biotrickling filter design 51722.4 Operational aspects of the full-scale biotrickling filter 51922.4.1 Start-up and biotrickling filter performance 51922.4.2 Facing operational and design challenges 52022.5 Economic aspects of desulfurizing biotrickling filters 522References 52223 Full-Scale Biogas Upgrading 525Jort Langerak, Robert Lems and Erwin H.M. Dirkse23.1 Introduction 52523.2 Case 1: Zalaegerszeg, PWS system with car fuelling station 52623.2.1 Biogas composition and biomethane requirements at Zalaegerszeg 52623.2.2 Plant configuration at Zalaegerszeg 52623.3 Case 2: Zwolle, PWS system with gas grid injection 52923.3.1 Biogas composition and biomethane requirements at Zwolle 53123.3.2 Plant configuration at Zwolle 53123.4 Case 3: Wijster, PWS system with gas grid injection 53423.4.1 Biogas composition and biomethane requirements at Wijster 53423.4.2 Plant configuration at Wijster 53423.5 Case 4: Poundbury, MS system with gas grid injection 53623.5.1 Biogas composition and biomethane requirements at Poundbury 53723.5.2 Plant configuration at Poundbury 53723.6 Configuration overview and evaluation 53923.7 Capital and operational expenses 54023.7.1 Zalaegerszeg 54023.7.2 Zwolle 54123.7.3 Wijster 54123.7.4 Poundbury 54123.7.5 Overview table of capital and operating expenses 54123.8 Conclusions 542References 543Index 545