Principles and Applications of Tribology

Dr Bhushan is Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D. Winbigler Professor as well as Director of the Nanoprobe Laboratory for Bio- & Nanotechnology and Biomimetics at The Ohio State University. During his career he has received a number of awards and accolades as well as being central to teaching and formulating the curriculum in Tribology-related topics.  He is a Fellow and Life Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, as well as various other professional societies.

“Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates and graduate students in engineering, researchers/faculty, and professionals/practitioners.”  (Choice, 1 October 2013)

• About the Author xvForeword xviiSeries Preface xixPreface to Second Edition xxiPreface to First Edition xxiii1 Introduction 11.1 Definition and History of Tribology 11.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 31.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 41.4 Organization of the Book 6References 72 Structure and Properties of Solids 92.1 Introduction 92.2 Atomic Structure, Bonding and Coordination 92.2.1 Individual Atoms and Ions 92.2.2 Molecules, Bonding and Atomic Coordination 132.3 Crystalline Structures 332.3.1 Planar Structures 332.3.2 Nonplanar Structures 392.4 Disorder in Solid Structures 412.4.1 Point Defects 412.4.2 Line Defects (Dislocations) 412.4.3 Surfaces/Internal Boundaries 442.4.4 Solid Solutions 452.5 Atomic Vibrations and Diffusions 452.6 Phase Diagrams 462.7 Microstructures 482.8 Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue 492.8.1 Elastic Deformation 512.8.2 Plastic Deformation 532.8.3 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 562.8.4 Fracture 622.8.5 Fatigue 682.9 Time-Dependent Viscoelastic/Viscoplastic Deformation 742.9.1 Description of Time-Dependent Deformation Experiments 77Problems 80References 81Further Reading 823 Solid Surface Characterization 833.1 The Nature of Surfaces 833.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 843.2.1 Deformed Layer 843.2.2 Chemically Reacted Layer 853.2.3 Physisorbed Layer 863.2.4 Chemisorbed Layer 873.2.5 Surface Tension, Surface Energy, and Wetting 873.2.6 Methods of Characterization of Surface Layers 903.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 903.3.1 Average Roughness Parameters 923.3.2 Statistical Analyses 993.3.3 Fractal Characterization 1253.3.4 Practical Considerations in the Measurement of Roughness Parameters 1273.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 1313.4.1 Mechanical Stylus Method 1333.4.2 Optical Methods 1373.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Methods 1553.4.4 Fluid Methods 1633.4.5 Electrical Method 1663.4.6 Electron Microscopy Methods 1663.4.7 Analysis of Measured Height Distribution 1683.4.8 Comparison of Measurement Methods 1683.5 Closure 174Problems 175References 176Further Reading 1794 Contact between Solid Surfaces 1814.1 Introduction 1814.2 Analysis of the Contacts 1824.2.1 Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids 1824.2.2 Single Asperity Contact of Layered Solids in Frictionless and Frictional Contacts 1994.2.3 Multiple Asperity Dry Contacts 2094.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 2514.3.1 Review of Measurement Techniques 2514.3.2 Comparison of Different Measurement Techniques 2554.3.3 Typical Measurements 2594.4 Closure 262Problems 264References 265Further Reading 2695 Adhesion 2715.1 Introduction 2715.2 Solid–Solid Contact 2725.2.1 Covalent Bond 2765.2.2 Ionic or Electrostatic Bond 2765.2.3 Metallic Bond 2775.2.4 Hydrogen Bond 2785.2.5 Van der Waals Bond 2785.2.6 Free Surface Energy Theory of Adhesion 2795.2.7 Polymer Adhesion 2875.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 2885.3.1 Idealized Geometries 2905.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contacts 3055.4 Closure 316Problems 317References 317Further Reading 3206 Friction 3216.1 Introduction 3216.2 Solid–Solid Contact 3236.2.1 Rules of Sliding Friction 3236.2.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 3286.2.3 Other Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 3496.2.4 Friction Transitions During Sliding 3546.2.5 Static Friction 3566.2.6 Stick-Slip 3586.2.7 Rolling Friction 3626.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 3666.4 Friction of Materials 3696.4.1 Friction of Metals and Alloys 3716.4.2 Friction of Ceramics 3756.4.3 Friction of Polymers 3806.4.4 Friction of Solid Lubricants 3836.5 Closure 392Problems 396References 397Further Reading 4007 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 4037.1 Introduction 4037.2 Thermal Analysis 4047.2.1 Fundamental Heat Conduction Solutions 4057.2.2 High Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa ∼ 1) (Individual Contact) 4067.2.3 Low Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa I 1) (Multiple-Asperity Contact) 4157.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 4317.3.1 Thermocouple and Thin-Film Temperature Sensors 4317.3.2 Radiation Detection Techniques 4347.3.3 Metallographic Techniques 4407.3.4 Liquid Crystals 4417.4 Closure 442Problems 444References 4448 Wear 4478.1 Introduction 4478.2 Types of Wear Mechanisms 4488.2.1 Adhesive Wear 4488.2.2 Abrasive Wear (by Plastic Deformation and Fracture) 4598.2.3 Fatigue Wear 4758.2.4 Impact Wear 4848.2.5 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear 4938.2.6 Electrical Arc-Induced Wear 4958.2.7 Fretting and Fretting Corrosion 4978.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 4998.3.1 Plate-Shaped Particles 4998.3.2 Ribbon-Shaped Particles 4998.3.3 Spherical Particles 5008.3.4 Irregularly Shaped Particles 5038.4 Wear of Materials 5038.4.1 Wear of Metals and Alloys 5058.4.2 Wear of Ceramics 5108.4.3 Wear of Polymers 5178.5 Closure 522Appendix 8.A Indentation Cracking in Brittle Materials 5258.A.1 Blunt Indenter 5268.A.2 Sharp Indenter 526Appendix 8.B Analysis of Failure Data Using the Weibull Distribution 5328.B.1 General Expression of the Weibull Distribution 5328.B.2 Graphical Representation of a Weibull Distribution 534Problems 538References 539Further Reading 5439 Fluid Film Lubrication 5459.1 Introduction 5459.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 5469.2.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 5469.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 5469.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 5489.2.4 Mixed Lubrication 5499.2.5 Boundary Lubrication 5499.3 Viscous Flow and the Reynolds Equation 5509.3.1 Viscosity and Newtonian Fluids 5509.3.2 Fluid Flow 5559.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 5699.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 5799.5.1 Thrust Bearings 5819.5.2 Journal Bearings 5949.5.3 Squeeze Film Bearings 6139.5.4 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 6169.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 6329.6.1 Forms of Contacts 6339.6.2 Line Contact 6349.6.3 Point Contact 6449.6.4 Thermal Correction 6459.6.5 Lubricant Rheology 6469.7 Closure 647Problems 649References 650Further Reading 65210 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 65510.1 Introduction 65510.2 Boundary Lubrication 65610.2.1 Effect of Adsorbed Gases 65810.2.2 Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers 65910.2.3 Effect of Chemical Films 66210.2.4 Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight) 66410.3 Liquid Lubricants 66510.3.1 Principal Classes of Lubricants 66510.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants 67110.3.3 Additives 68010.4 Ionic Liquids 68110.4.1 Composition of Ionic Liquids 68210.4.2 Properties of Ionic Liquids 68410.4.3 Lubrication Mechanisms of ILs 68510.4.4 Issues on the Applicability of Ionic Liquids as Lubricants 68510.5 Greases 68610.6 Closure 686References 687Further Reading 68811 Nanotribology 68911.1 Introduction 68911.2 SFA Studies 69111.2.1 Description of an SFA 69211.2.2 Static (Equilibrium), Dynamic, and Shear Properties of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films 69411.3 AFM/FFM Studies 70311.3.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 70411.3.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 71211.3.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 74111.3.4 Indentation 75211.3.5 Boundary Lubrication 75811.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 77311.4.1 Interatomic Forces and Equations of Motion 77311.4.2 Interfacial Solid Junctions 77511.4.3 Interfacial Liquid Junctions and Confined Films 77611.5 Closure 778References 781Further Reading 78812 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 78912.1 Introduction 78912.2 Design Methodology 78912.2.1 Simulation 79012.2.2 Acceleration 79012.2.3 Specimen Preparation 79012.2.4 Friction and Wear Measurements 79112.3 Typical Test Geometries 79412.3.1 Sliding Friction and Wear Tests 79412.3.2 Abrasion Tests 79712.3.3 Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests 79912.3.4 Solid-Particle Erosion Test 79912.3.5 Corrosion Tests 80012.4 Closure 802References 802Further Reading 80313 Bulk Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments for Tribology 80513.1 Introduction 80513.2 Bulk Materials 80613.2.1 Metals and Alloys 80813.2.2 Ceramics and Cermets 82613.2.3 Ceramic-Metal Composites 84013.2.4 Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids 84113.3 Coatings and Surface Treatments 86113.3.1 Coating Deposition Techniques 86413.3.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 88513.3.3 Criteria for Selecting Coating Material/Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques 89013.4 Closure 892References 892Further Reading 89614 Tribological Components and Applications 89914.1 Introduction 89914.2 Common Tribological Components 89914.2.1 Sliding-Contact Bearings 89914.2.2 Rolling-Contact Bearings 90114.2.3 Seals 90314.2.4 Gears 90514.2.5 Cams and Tappets 90714.2.6 Piston Rings 90814.2.7 Electrical Brushes 91014.3 MEMS/NEMS 91214.3.1 MEMS 91414.3.2 NEMS 92114.3.3 BioMEMS 92114.3.4 Microfabrication Processes 92214.4 Material Processing 92314.4.1 Cutting Tools 92314.4.2 Grinding and Lapping 92714.4.3 Forming Processes 92714.4.4 Cutting Fluids 92814.5 Industrial Applications 93014.5.1 Automotive Engines 93014.5.2 Gas Turbine Engines 93214.5.3 Railroads 93414.5.4 Magnetic Storage Devices 93514.6 Closure 942References 943Further Reading 94715 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 94915.1 Introduction 94915.2 Green Tribology 94915.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Tribology 95015.2.2 Areas of Green Tribology 95115.3 Biomimetics 95415.3.1 Lessons from Nature 95515.3.2 Industrial Significance 95815.4 Closure 959References 959Further Reading 961Appendix A Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 963A.1 Fundamental Constants 963A.2 Conversion of Units 963A.3 Useful Relations 964Index 965