Seth Kwabena Amponsah, MPhil, PhD is Head of the Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana. He has published over 40 research articles, three book chapters, and edited a book. Ranjita Shegokar, PhD, MBA is Chief Scientific Officer (CSO) at Capnopharm GmbH, Tuebingen, Germany. She has authored several research articles and book chapters. Yashwant V. Pathak, PhD is Professor and Associate Dean for Faculty Affairs at College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Florida, USA.

• List of Contributors xxvForeword xxxiPreface xxxiiBiographies xxxiii1 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview 1Ranjita Shegokar, Seth K. Amponsah, and Yashwant V. Pathak1.1 Introduction 11.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy 11.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs 21.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs 31.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades 41.6 Conclusion 62 Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID-19 7Ismaila Adams, Ofosua Adi-Dako, Eugene Boafo, Emmanuel K. Ofori, and Seth K. Amponsah2.1 Introduction 72.2 Overview of COVID-19 82.3 Current State of the Pandemic 102.4 Epidemiological Projections and Modeling 112.5 Potential Scenarios for the Future 122.6 Impact of COVID-19 on Public Health and Healthcare Systems 132.7 Socioeconomic and Behavioral Considerations 142.8 Global Preparedness and Response 152.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 163 Mpox: New Challenges with the Disease 20Julia Wang, Lynn Nguyen, Vernon Volante, Jeannez Daniel, and Charles Preuss3.1 History of Mpox virus 203.2 Characteristics 203.3 Epidemiology 203.4 Transmission 213.5 Pathogenicity 223.6 Risk Factors 233.7 Diagnostic Testing 243.8 Symptoms 243.9 Long-Term Effects and Complications 253.10 Vaccinations 263.11 Epidemic Management 273.12 Pharmacology 283.13 Future Implications 293.14 Conclusion 294 Ebola Virus Disease: Transmission Dynamics and Management 31Kshama Patel, Jasmine Primus, Carina Copley, and Yashwant V. Pathak4.1 Introduction 314.2 Transmission Dynamics 334.3 Disease Management 344.4 Morbidity 364.5 Intersections 374.6 Conclusion 395 Avian Influenza Outbreaks over the Last Decade: An Analytical Review and Containment Strategies 42Abdullah Abdelkawi, Zaineb Zinoune, Aliyah Slim, and Yashwant V. Pathak5.1 Background 425.2 Causative Microorganisms 435.3 Strategies for Containment 455.4 Ongoing Investigations and Prospective Look into Avian Influenza 466 Swine Flu: Current Status and Challenges 50Lucy Mohapatra, Geeta Patel, Alok S. Tripathi, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Sambit K. Parida, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya6.1 Introduction 506.2 Current Status – Swine Flu 516.3 Pathogenesis Related to Swine Flu 536.4 Diagnosis 556.5 Treatment and Management of Swine Flu 576.6 Challenges During Combating Swine Flu 586.7 Conclusion 607 Zika Virus Disease: An Emerging Global Threat 66Ofosua Adi-Dako, Awo A. Kwapong, and Selorme Adukpo7.1 Introduction 667.2 Epidemiology of the Zika Virus Infection 667.3 Infection and Pathophysiology 677.4 Immune Response and Vaccine 687.5 Zika Virus Infection Diagnosis and Management 697.6 Development of Antiviral Therapeutic Drug against Zika Virus 697.7 The Way Forward 708 Current Perspectives in Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever 72Manish P. Patel, Vaishnavi M. Oza, Hemangi B. Tanna, Avinash D. Khadela, Praful D. Bharadia, and Jayvadan K. Patel8.1 Introduction 728.2 Life Cycle of Dengue Mosquitoes 748.3 Life Cycle of Dengue Virus 748.4 Risk Factors Responsible for Dengue Fever 758.5 Pathophysiology of Dengue Fever 758.6 Clinical Manifestation 768.7 Diagnosis of Dengue Fever 788.8 Prevention of Disease 808.9 Management of Dengue Disease 838.10 Conclusion 859 West Nile Virus: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Interventions 87Bibhuti B. Kakoti, Lawandashisha Nongrang, Chinmoyee Borah, Monali Lahiri, Mainak Ghosh, and Ankit Choudhary9.1 Introduction 879.2 Geographical Distribution 889.3 The Virus and its Genome 899.4 Etiology and Pathogenesis 909.5 Relationship Between Host-Pathogen in West Nile Virus Infection 929.6 Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus 939.7 Management of West Nile Virus 959.8 Recent Advancements in Diagnostics, Clinical Assessment, and Treatment 969.9 Conclusion and Future Prediction 9810 Hantavirus Disease: A Global Update over the Last Decade 106Anita Patel, Nisarg Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel10.1 Introduction 10610.2 Life Cycle 10610.3 Ecology and Evolution of Hantavirus 10810.4 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections 11110.5 The Clinical Course of Hantavirus Diseases and Pathology 11310.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Hantavirus Infection 11410.7 Treatment and Prevention 11610.8 Recent Outbreaks of Hantavirus 12110.9 Summary and Conclusion 12211 Current Advances in Marburg Virus Disease 129Emmanuel K. Ofori and Eric N.Y. Nyarko11.1 Introduction 12911.2 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of MARV 13411.3 Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) 13511.4 Conclusion 14212 Recent Advances in Combating Nipah Virus Disease 145Mehul Chorawala, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Nirjari Kothari, and Aayushi Shah12.1 Introduction 14512.2 Recent Advancements in Nipah Virus Diagnostic Tools 15112.3 Recent Development in Therapeutics and Treatment Modalities Against NiV Disease 15212.4 Conclusion and Future Directions 15813 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) 164Orhan E. Arslan13.1 Introduction 16413.2 Discussion 16513.3 Conclusions 17414 Chikungunya Fever: Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestation, and Management 181Chandrakanta, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, and Archana N. Sah14.1 Introduction 18114.2 Epidemiology 18414.3 Clinical Manifestation 18614.4 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever 18914.5 Management of Chikungunya Fever 19014.6 Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs 19114.7 Non-Pharmacological Treatment 19114.8 Medicinal Plants for CHIKV and Its Associated Symptoms 19114.9 Future Prospectives 19314.10 Conclusion 19315 Lassa Fever: Recent Clinical Reports and Management Update 199Abigail Aning, Kwasi A. Bugyei, Bismarck A. Hottor, and Seth K. Amponsah15.1 Background 19915.2 Geographical Distribution 19915.3 Mode of Transmission 19915.4 Reservoir Hosts 19915.5 Incidence and Prevalence 20015.6 Clinical Presentation 20015.7 Diagnostic Methods 20115.8 Recent Clinical Reports 20115.9 Management and Treatment 20215.10 Future Prospects and Research Directions 20315.11 Conclusions 20416 Lyme Disease Management: Antibiotics and Beyond 207Aparoop Das, Kalyani Pathak, Manash P. Pathak, Urvashee Gogoi, and Riya Saikia16.1 Introduction to Lyme Disease 20716.2 Modes of Transmission 20816.3 Recent Trends in Lyme Disease Management 20916.4 Future Directions and Challenges in Lyme Disease Management 21416.5 Conclusion 21517 Chagas Disease: Historical and Current Trends 220Vivek Patel, Dhara Patel, Grishma Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel17.1 Introduction 22017.2 Discovery of Chagas Disease 22117.3 Etiology of Chagas Disease 22217.4 Lifecycle of T. cruzi 22217.5 Clinical Forms of Chagas Disease 22317.6 Diagnosis and Management of Chagas Disease 22417.7 Conclusion 23118 Legionnaires’ Disease: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 237Julia Wang, Neha Chintapally, Meera Nagpal, Anjali Mahapatra, and Charles Preuss18.1 History of Legionella spp. 23718.2 Bacterial Life Cycle 23818.3 Pathogenicity 23818.4 Alterations to Host Cell Pathways 23918.5 Ubiquitin Pathways 24018.6 Legionella-Amoeba Interactions 24118.7 Risk Factors 24118.8 Detection/Diagnostic Testing 24118.9 Symptoms 24218.10 Long-Term Effects and Co-morbidities 24318.11 Prevention 24318.12 Pharmacology 24418.13 Treatments in Development 24518.14 New Technologies 24618.15 Conclusion 24819 Babesiosis: An Emerging Global Threat 253Komal Parmar and Jayvadan K. Patel19.1 Introduction 25319.2 World-Wide Babesiosis Human Infection 25319.3 Life Cycle and Transmission 25519.4 Clinical Features, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Babesiosis 25619.5 Management of Babesiosis 25619.6 Conclusion 25720 Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria 261Priya Patel, Arti Bagada, and Nasir Vadia20.1 History of Malaria 26120.2 Types of Malaria 26220.3 Worldwide Trend of Malaria (Geographical and Country)/The Spatial Epidemiology of Malaria Globally 26420.4 History of Malaria Control by Various Authorities/Agencies 26720.5 Diagnosis and Treatment 27020.6 Prevention and Elimination of Malaria 27220.7 Vaccine for Malaria and Current Trends of Malaria Treatment 27320.8 Challenges for National Governments 27520.9 Malaria Eradication Programme 27620.10 Conclusion 27821 Cryptosporidiosis: Recent Advances in Diagnostics and Management 283Subhasundar Maji, Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Debankini Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, and Sandipan Dasgupta21.1 Introduction 28321.2 Epidemiology 28421.3 What Is Cryptosporidium? 28421.4 Mechanism of Cryptosporidium Infection 28621.5 Diagnostic Methods 28721.6 Management 28821.7 Prevention and Control 29121.8 Future Perspectives 29321.9 Conclusion 29422 Leishmaniasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 297Ismaila Adams, Awo A. Kwapong, Eugene Boafo, Elizabeth Twum, and Seth K. Amponsah22.1 Introduction 29722.2 Leishmania Species and Clinical Manifestations 29822.3 Microbiology of Leishmania 29922.4 Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis 30122.5 Drug Therapy for Leishmaniasis 30322.6 Drug Resistance in Leishmania 30422.7 Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance in Leishmania 30522.8 New Developments in Antileishmanial Drugs 30622.9 Repurposing Existing Drugs 30822.10 Vector Control and Leishmaniasis Prevention 30922.11 Conclusion 30923 Recent Trends in Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis and Management 314Mehul Chorawala, Nirjari Kothari, Aayushi Shah, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati23.1 Introduction 31423.2 Recent Advances in Diagnosis 31923.3 Current Management of Toxoplasmosis 32123.4 Need for Novel Treatment 32423.5 Novel or Repurposed Therapeutic Molecules as Anti-Toxoplasma Activity 32423.6 Conclusion and Outlook 32924 Recent Trends in Neurocysticerosis Diagnosis and Management 337Sachin P. Bhatt, Avani N. Joshi, and Bhupendra G. PrajapatiAbbreviations 33724.1 Introduction 33724.2 Immunologic Diagnosis 34124.3 Management Approaches by Neurocysticercosis Form 34424.4 Conclusion 34725 Trichinosis: History and Current Trends 351Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Sandipan Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, Subhasundar Maji, and Shwetlana Bandyopadhyay25.1 Background 35125.2 Historical Reports of Trichinosis Infection 35125.3 The Discovery of Trichinosis 35225.4 Major Outbreaks of Trichinosis 35325.5 Trichinosis Episodes in Animals 35625.6 The Nematode: Trichinella sp. 35825.8 Control of Trichinella Infection in Humans 36325.9 Current Trend in Trichinella Epidemiology 36325.10 Conclusion 36426 Schistosomiasis: Recent Clinical Reports and Management 368Emmanuel K. Ofori and Akua O. Forson26.1 Introduction 36826.2 Parasitology Diagnosis 37126.3 Biomarkers: Screening, Detection of Worm Antigens and Specific Antibodies 37126.4 Radiology 37226.5 Management 37226.6 Conclusion 37427 Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Interventions 378Lucy Mohapatra, Alok S. Tripathi, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya27.1 Introduction 37827.2 Epidemiology for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 37927.3 Pathogenesis of Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 37927.4 Evolutionary Dynamics Involved in Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38327.5 Diagnosis for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38527.6 Advances in Therapeutic Interventions for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38727.7 Conclusion 38928 Epidemiology and Current Treatment Trends in “Thelaziasis” 396Rihana B. Patnool, Badrud D. Mohammad, Vishwas H. Nagendra, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Muhasina K. Muhamadkazim, and Sivasankaran Ponnusankar28.1 Introduction 39628.2 Causative Agents 39728.3 Morphology 39928.4 Mode of Transmission 40228.5 Hosts and Vectors 40328.6 Life Cycle of Thelazia Species 40528.7 Molecular Acumens of Thelaziasis Species 40628.8 Geographical Distribution 40628.9 Clinical Presentations of Thelaziasis 40728.10 Diagnosis of Thelaziasis 40728.11 Treatment Options for Thelaziasis 40728.12 Precautionary Measures 40828.13 Preventive Measures for Thelaziasis 40828.14 Recent Trends in Thelaziasis Control 40928.15 Conclusion 40929 Trypanosomiasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 411Verner N. Orish29.1 Introduction 41129.2 History 41229.3 Parasite 41329.4 Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) 41629.5 Life Cycle of Trypanosoma 41729.6 Other Mechanisms of Transmission 41829.7 Pathogenesis of HAT 41929.8 Clinical Manifestations 42029.9 Diagnosis 42029.10 Treatment 42129.11 Control and Prevention 42329.12 Challenges of Control and Prevention 42429.13 Conclusion 42430 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: Current Challenges and Future Directions 428Seth K. Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar, and Yashwant V. Pathak30.1 Introduction 42830.2 Factors Leading to the Emergence and Re-Emergence of Infectious Diseases 42930.3 Current Challenges of Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases 43030.4 Strategies/Possible Interventions 43130.5 Future Directions 43330.6 Conclusion 434References 434Index 438

Seth Kwabena Amponsah, MPhil, PhD is Head of the Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana. He has published over 40 research articles, three book chapters, and edited a book. Ranjita Shegokar, PhD, MBA is Chief Scientific Officer (CSO) at Capnopharm GmbH, Tuebingen, Germany. She has authored several research articles and book chapters. Yashwant V. Pathak, PhD is Professor and Associate Dean for Faculty Affairs at College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Florida, USA.

• List of Contributors xxvForeword xxxiPreface xxxiiBiographies xxxiii1 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview 1Ranjita Shegokar, Seth K. Amponsah, and Yashwant V. Pathak1.1 Introduction 11.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy 11.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs 21.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs 31.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades 41.6 Conclusion 62 Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID-19 7Ismaila Adams, Ofosua Adi-Dako, Eugene Boafo, Emmanuel K. Ofori, and Seth K. Amponsah2.1 Introduction 72.2 Overview of COVID-19 82.3 Current State of the Pandemic 102.4 Epidemiological Projections and Modeling 112.5 Potential Scenarios for the Future 122.6 Impact of COVID-19 on Public Health and Healthcare Systems 132.7 Socioeconomic and Behavioral Considerations 142.8 Global Preparedness and Response 152.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 163 Mpox: New Challenges with the Disease 20Julia Wang, Lynn Nguyen, Vernon Volante, Jeannez Daniel, and Charles Preuss3.1 History of Mpox virus 203.2 Characteristics 203.3 Epidemiology 203.4 Transmission 213.5 Pathogenicity 223.6 Risk Factors 233.7 Diagnostic Testing 243.8 Symptoms 243.9 Long-Term Effects and Complications 253.10 Vaccinations 263.11 Epidemic Management 273.12 Pharmacology 283.13 Future Implications 293.14 Conclusion 294 Ebola Virus Disease: Transmission Dynamics and Management 31Kshama Patel, Jasmine Primus, Carina Copley, and Yashwant V. Pathak4.1 Introduction 314.2 Transmission Dynamics 334.3 Disease Management 344.4 Morbidity 364.5 Intersections 374.6 Conclusion 395 Avian Influenza Outbreaks over the Last Decade: An Analytical Review and Containment Strategies 42Abdullah Abdelkawi, Zaineb Zinoune, Aliyah Slim, and Yashwant V. Pathak5.1 Background 425.2 Causative Microorganisms 435.3 Strategies for Containment 455.4 Ongoing Investigations and Prospective Look into Avian Influenza 466 Swine Flu: Current Status and Challenges 50Lucy Mohapatra, Geeta Patel, Alok S. Tripathi, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Sambit K. Parida, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya6.1 Introduction 506.2 Current Status – Swine Flu 516.3 Pathogenesis Related to Swine Flu 536.4 Diagnosis 556.5 Treatment and Management of Swine Flu 576.6 Challenges During Combating Swine Flu 586.7 Conclusion 607 Zika Virus Disease: An Emerging Global Threat 66Ofosua Adi-Dako, Awo A. Kwapong, and Selorme Adukpo7.1 Introduction 667.2 Epidemiology of the Zika Virus Infection 667.3 Infection and Pathophysiology 677.4 Immune Response and Vaccine 687.5 Zika Virus Infection Diagnosis and Management 697.6 Development of Antiviral Therapeutic Drug against Zika Virus 697.7 The Way Forward 708 Current Perspectives in Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever 72Manish P. Patel, Vaishnavi M. Oza, Hemangi B. Tanna, Avinash D. Khadela, Praful D. Bharadia, and Jayvadan K. Patel8.1 Introduction 728.2 Life Cycle of Dengue Mosquitoes 748.3 Life Cycle of Dengue Virus 748.4 Risk Factors Responsible for Dengue Fever 758.5 Pathophysiology of Dengue Fever 758.6 Clinical Manifestation 768.7 Diagnosis of Dengue Fever 788.8 Prevention of Disease 808.9 Management of Dengue Disease 838.10 Conclusion 859 West Nile Virus: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Interventions 87Bibhuti B. Kakoti, Lawandashisha Nongrang, Chinmoyee Borah, Monali Lahiri, Mainak Ghosh, and Ankit Choudhary9.1 Introduction 879.2 Geographical Distribution 889.3 The Virus and its Genome 899.4 Etiology and Pathogenesis 909.5 Relationship Between Host-Pathogen in West Nile Virus Infection 929.6 Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus 939.7 Management of West Nile Virus 959.8 Recent Advancements in Diagnostics, Clinical Assessment, and Treatment 969.9 Conclusion and Future Prediction 9810 Hantavirus Disease: A Global Update over the Last Decade 106Anita Patel, Nisarg Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel10.1 Introduction 10610.2 Life Cycle 10610.3 Ecology and Evolution of Hantavirus 10810.4 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections 11110.5 The Clinical Course of Hantavirus Diseases and Pathology 11310.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Hantavirus Infection 11410.7 Treatment and Prevention 11610.8 Recent Outbreaks of Hantavirus 12110.9 Summary and Conclusion 12211 Current Advances in Marburg Virus Disease 129Emmanuel K. Ofori and Eric N.Y. Nyarko11.1 Introduction 12911.2 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of MARV 13411.3 Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) 13511.4 Conclusion 14212 Recent Advances in Combating Nipah Virus Disease 145Mehul Chorawala, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Nirjari Kothari, and Aayushi Shah12.1 Introduction 14512.2 Recent Advancements in Nipah Virus Diagnostic Tools 15112.3 Recent Development in Therapeutics and Treatment Modalities Against NiV Disease 15212.4 Conclusion and Future Directions 15813 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) 164Orhan E. Arslan13.1 Introduction 16413.2 Discussion 16513.3 Conclusions 17414 Chikungunya Fever: Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestation, and Management 181Chandrakanta, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, and Archana N. Sah14.1 Introduction 18114.2 Epidemiology 18414.3 Clinical Manifestation 18614.4 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever 18914.5 Management of Chikungunya Fever 19014.6 Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs 19114.7 Non-Pharmacological Treatment 19114.8 Medicinal Plants for CHIKV and Its Associated Symptoms 19114.9 Future Prospectives 19314.10 Conclusion 19315 Lassa Fever: Recent Clinical Reports and Management Update 199Abigail Aning, Kwasi A. Bugyei, Bismarck A. Hottor, and Seth K. Amponsah15.1 Background 19915.2 Geographical Distribution 19915.3 Mode of Transmission 19915.4 Reservoir Hosts 19915.5 Incidence and Prevalence 20015.6 Clinical Presentation 20015.7 Diagnostic Methods 20115.8 Recent Clinical Reports 20115.9 Management and Treatment 20215.10 Future Prospects and Research Directions 20315.11 Conclusions 20416 Lyme Disease Management: Antibiotics and Beyond 207Aparoop Das, Kalyani Pathak, Manash P. Pathak, Urvashee Gogoi, and Riya Saikia16.1 Introduction to Lyme Disease 20716.2 Modes of Transmission 20816.3 Recent Trends in Lyme Disease Management 20916.4 Future Directions and Challenges in Lyme Disease Management 21416.5 Conclusion 21517 Chagas Disease: Historical and Current Trends 220Vivek Patel, Dhara Patel, Grishma Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel17.1 Introduction 22017.2 Discovery of Chagas Disease 22117.3 Etiology of Chagas Disease 22217.4 Lifecycle of T. cruzi 22217.5 Clinical Forms of Chagas Disease 22317.6 Diagnosis and Management of Chagas Disease 22417.7 Conclusion 23118 Legionnaires’ Disease: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 237Julia Wang, Neha Chintapally, Meera Nagpal, Anjali Mahapatra, and Charles Preuss18.1 History of Legionella spp. 23718.2 Bacterial Life Cycle 23818.3 Pathogenicity 23818.4 Alterations to Host Cell Pathways 23918.5 Ubiquitin Pathways 24018.6 Legionella-Amoeba Interactions 24118.7 Risk Factors 24118.8 Detection/Diagnostic Testing 24118.9 Symptoms 24218.10 Long-Term Effects and Co-morbidities 24318.11 Prevention 24318.12 Pharmacology 24418.13 Treatments in Development 24518.14 New Technologies 24618.15 Conclusion 24819 Babesiosis: An Emerging Global Threat 253Komal Parmar and Jayvadan K. Patel19.1 Introduction 25319.2 World-Wide Babesiosis Human Infection 25319.3 Life Cycle and Transmission 25519.4 Clinical Features, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Babesiosis 25619.5 Management of Babesiosis 25619.6 Conclusion 25720 Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria 261Priya Patel, Arti Bagada, and Nasir Vadia20.1 History of Malaria 26120.2 Types of Malaria 26220.3 Worldwide Trend of Malaria (Geographical and Country)/The Spatial Epidemiology of Malaria Globally 26420.4 History of Malaria Control by Various Authorities/Agencies 26720.5 Diagnosis and Treatment 27020.6 Prevention and Elimination of Malaria 27220.7 Vaccine for Malaria and Current Trends of Malaria Treatment 27320.8 Challenges for National Governments 27520.9 Malaria Eradication Programme 27620.10 Conclusion 27821 Cryptosporidiosis: Recent Advances in Diagnostics and Management 283Subhasundar Maji, Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Debankini Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, and Sandipan Dasgupta21.1 Introduction 28321.2 Epidemiology 28421.3 What Is Cryptosporidium? 28421.4 Mechanism of Cryptosporidium Infection 28621.5 Diagnostic Methods 28721.6 Management 28821.7 Prevention and Control 29121.8 Future Perspectives 29321.9 Conclusion 29422 Leishmaniasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 297Ismaila Adams, Awo A. Kwapong, Eugene Boafo, Elizabeth Twum, and Seth K. Amponsah22.1 Introduction 29722.2 Leishmania Species and Clinical Manifestations 29822.3 Microbiology of Leishmania 29922.4 Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis 30122.5 Drug Therapy for Leishmaniasis 30322.6 Drug Resistance in Leishmania 30422.7 Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance in Leishmania 30522.8 New Developments in Antileishmanial Drugs 30622.9 Repurposing Existing Drugs 30822.10 Vector Control and Leishmaniasis Prevention 30922.11 Conclusion 30923 Recent Trends in Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis and Management 314Mehul Chorawala, Nirjari Kothari, Aayushi Shah, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati23.1 Introduction 31423.2 Recent Advances in Diagnosis 31923.3 Current Management of Toxoplasmosis 32123.4 Need for Novel Treatment 32423.5 Novel or Repurposed Therapeutic Molecules as Anti-Toxoplasma Activity 32423.6 Conclusion and Outlook 32924 Recent Trends in Neurocysticerosis Diagnosis and Management 337Sachin P. Bhatt, Avani N. Joshi, and Bhupendra G. PrajapatiAbbreviations 33724.1 Introduction 33724.2 Immunologic Diagnosis 34124.3 Management Approaches by Neurocysticercosis Form 34424.4 Conclusion 34725 Trichinosis: History and Current Trends 351Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Sandipan Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, Subhasundar Maji, and Shwetlana Bandyopadhyay25.1 Background 35125.2 Historical Reports of Trichinosis Infection 35125.3 The Discovery of Trichinosis 35225.4 Major Outbreaks of Trichinosis 35325.5 Trichinosis Episodes in Animals 35625.6 The Nematode: Trichinella sp. 35825.8 Control of Trichinella Infection in Humans 36325.9 Current Trend in Trichinella Epidemiology 36325.10 Conclusion 36426 Schistosomiasis: Recent Clinical Reports and Management 368Emmanuel K. Ofori and Akua O. Forson26.1 Introduction 36826.2 Parasitology Diagnosis 37126.3 Biomarkers: Screening, Detection of Worm Antigens and Specific Antibodies 37126.4 Radiology 37226.5 Management 37226.6 Conclusion 37427 Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Interventions 378Lucy Mohapatra, Alok S. Tripathi, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya27.1 Introduction 37827.2 Epidemiology for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 37927.3 Pathogenesis of Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 37927.4 Evolutionary Dynamics Involved in Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38327.5 Diagnosis for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38527.6 Advances in Therapeutic Interventions for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38727.7 Conclusion 38928 Epidemiology and Current Treatment Trends in “Thelaziasis” 396Rihana B. Patnool, Badrud D. Mohammad, Vishwas H. Nagendra, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Muhasina K. Muhamadkazim, and Sivasankaran Ponnusankar28.1 Introduction 39628.2 Causative Agents 39728.3 Morphology 39928.4 Mode of Transmission 40228.5 Hosts and Vectors 40328.6 Life Cycle of Thelazia Species 40528.7 Molecular Acumens of Thelaziasis Species 40628.8 Geographical Distribution 40628.9 Clinical Presentations of Thelaziasis 40728.10 Diagnosis of Thelaziasis 40728.11 Treatment Options for Thelaziasis 40728.12 Precautionary Measures 40828.13 Preventive Measures for Thelaziasis 40828.14 Recent Trends in Thelaziasis Control 40928.15 Conclusion 40929 Trypanosomiasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 411Verner N. Orish29.1 Introduction 41129.2 History 41229.3 Parasite 41329.4 Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) 41629.5 Life Cycle of Trypanosoma 41729.6 Other Mechanisms of Transmission 41829.7 Pathogenesis of HAT 41929.8 Clinical Manifestations 42029.9 Diagnosis 42029.10 Treatment 42129.11 Control and Prevention 42329.12 Challenges of Control and Prevention 42429.13 Conclusion 42430 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: Current Challenges and Future Directions 428Seth K. Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar, and Yashwant V. Pathak30.1 Introduction 42830.2 Factors Leading to the Emergence and Re-Emergence of Infectious Diseases 42930.3 Current Challenges of Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases 43030.4 Strategies/Possible Interventions 43130.5 Future Directions 43330.6 Conclusion 434References 434Index 438

Seth Kwabena Amponsah, MPhil, PhD is Head of the Department of Medical Pharmacology, University of Ghana Medical School, Accra, Ghana. He has published over 40 research articles, three book chapters, and edited a book. Ranjita Shegokar, PhD, MBA is Chief Scientific Officer (CSO) at Capnopharm GmbH, Tuebingen, Germany. She has authored several research articles and book chapters. Yashwant V. Pathak, PhD is Professor and Associate Dean for Faculty Affairs at College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Florida, USA.

• List of Contributors xxvForeword xxxiPreface xxxiiBiographies xxxiii1 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: An Overview 1Ranjita Shegokar, Seth K. Amponsah, and Yashwant V. Pathak1.1 Introduction 11.2 Infectious Diseases and the Economy 11.3 The Main Factors Involved in EIDs and REIDs 21.4 Prevention of EIDs and REIDs 31.5 Infectious Diseases of the Last Decades 41.6 Conclusion 62 Recent Trends and Possible Future Trajectory of COVID-19 7Ismaila Adams, Ofosua Adi-Dako, Eugene Boafo, Emmanuel K. Ofori, and Seth K. Amponsah2.1 Introduction 72.2 Overview of COVID-19 82.3 Current State of the Pandemic 102.4 Epidemiological Projections and Modeling 112.5 Potential Scenarios for the Future 122.6 Impact of COVID-19 on Public Health and Healthcare Systems 132.7 Socioeconomic and Behavioral Considerations 142.8 Global Preparedness and Response 152.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 163 Mpox: New Challenges with the Disease 20Julia Wang, Lynn Nguyen, Vernon Volante, Jeannez Daniel, and Charles Preuss3.1 History of Mpox virus 203.2 Characteristics 203.3 Epidemiology 203.4 Transmission 213.5 Pathogenicity 223.6 Risk Factors 233.7 Diagnostic Testing 243.8 Symptoms 243.9 Long-Term Effects and Complications 253.10 Vaccinations 263.11 Epidemic Management 273.12 Pharmacology 283.13 Future Implications 293.14 Conclusion 294 Ebola Virus Disease: Transmission Dynamics and Management 31Kshama Patel, Jasmine Primus, Carina Copley, and Yashwant V. Pathak4.1 Introduction 314.2 Transmission Dynamics 334.3 Disease Management 344.4 Morbidity 364.5 Intersections 374.6 Conclusion 395 Avian Influenza Outbreaks over the Last Decade: An Analytical Review and Containment Strategies 42Abdullah Abdelkawi, Zaineb Zinoune, Aliyah Slim, and Yashwant V. Pathak5.1 Background 425.2 Causative Microorganisms 435.3 Strategies for Containment 455.4 Ongoing Investigations and Prospective Look into Avian Influenza 466 Swine Flu: Current Status and Challenges 50Lucy Mohapatra, Geeta Patel, Alok S. Tripathi, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Sambit K. Parida, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya6.1 Introduction 506.2 Current Status – Swine Flu 516.3 Pathogenesis Related to Swine Flu 536.4 Diagnosis 556.5 Treatment and Management of Swine Flu 576.6 Challenges During Combating Swine Flu 586.7 Conclusion 607 Zika Virus Disease: An Emerging Global Threat 66Ofosua Adi-Dako, Awo A. Kwapong, and Selorme Adukpo7.1 Introduction 667.2 Epidemiology of the Zika Virus Infection 667.3 Infection and Pathophysiology 677.4 Immune Response and Vaccine 687.5 Zika Virus Infection Diagnosis and Management 697.6 Development of Antiviral Therapeutic Drug against Zika Virus 697.7 The Way Forward 708 Current Perspectives in Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever 72Manish P. Patel, Vaishnavi M. Oza, Hemangi B. Tanna, Avinash D. Khadela, Praful D. Bharadia, and Jayvadan K. Patel8.1 Introduction 728.2 Life Cycle of Dengue Mosquitoes 748.3 Life Cycle of Dengue Virus 748.4 Risk Factors Responsible for Dengue Fever 758.5 Pathophysiology of Dengue Fever 758.6 Clinical Manifestation 768.7 Diagnosis of Dengue Fever 788.8 Prevention of Disease 808.9 Management of Dengue Disease 838.10 Conclusion 859 West Nile Virus: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics, and Therapeutic Interventions 87Bibhuti B. Kakoti, Lawandashisha Nongrang, Chinmoyee Borah, Monali Lahiri, Mainak Ghosh, and Ankit Choudhary9.1 Introduction 879.2 Geographical Distribution 889.3 The Virus and its Genome 899.4 Etiology and Pathogenesis 909.5 Relationship Between Host-Pathogen in West Nile Virus Infection 929.6 Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus 939.7 Management of West Nile Virus 959.8 Recent Advancements in Diagnostics, Clinical Assessment, and Treatment 969.9 Conclusion and Future Prediction 9810 Hantavirus Disease: A Global Update over the Last Decade 106Anita Patel, Nisarg Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel10.1 Introduction 10610.2 Life Cycle 10610.3 Ecology and Evolution of Hantavirus 10810.4 Epidemiology of Hantavirus Infections 11110.5 The Clinical Course of Hantavirus Diseases and Pathology 11310.6 Laboratory Diagnosis of Hantavirus Infection 11410.7 Treatment and Prevention 11610.8 Recent Outbreaks of Hantavirus 12110.9 Summary and Conclusion 12211 Current Advances in Marburg Virus Disease 129Emmanuel K. Ofori and Eric N.Y. Nyarko11.1 Introduction 12911.2 Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of MARV 13411.3 Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) 13511.4 Conclusion 14212 Recent Advances in Combating Nipah Virus Disease 145Mehul Chorawala, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Nirjari Kothari, and Aayushi Shah12.1 Introduction 14512.2 Recent Advancements in Nipah Virus Diagnostic Tools 15112.3 Recent Development in Therapeutics and Treatment Modalities Against NiV Disease 15212.4 Conclusion and Future Directions 15813 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) 164Orhan E. Arslan13.1 Introduction 16413.2 Discussion 16513.3 Conclusions 17414 Chikungunya Fever: Epidemiology, Clinical Manifestation, and Management 181Chandrakanta, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, and Archana N. Sah14.1 Introduction 18114.2 Epidemiology 18414.3 Clinical Manifestation 18614.4 Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever 18914.5 Management of Chikungunya Fever 19014.6 Disease Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs 19114.7 Non-Pharmacological Treatment 19114.8 Medicinal Plants for CHIKV and Its Associated Symptoms 19114.9 Future Prospectives 19314.10 Conclusion 19315 Lassa Fever: Recent Clinical Reports and Management Update 199Abigail Aning, Kwasi A. Bugyei, Bismarck A. Hottor, and Seth K. Amponsah15.1 Background 19915.2 Geographical Distribution 19915.3 Mode of Transmission 19915.4 Reservoir Hosts 19915.5 Incidence and Prevalence 20015.6 Clinical Presentation 20015.7 Diagnostic Methods 20115.8 Recent Clinical Reports 20115.9 Management and Treatment 20215.10 Future Prospects and Research Directions 20315.11 Conclusions 20416 Lyme Disease Management: Antibiotics and Beyond 207Aparoop Das, Kalyani Pathak, Manash P. Pathak, Urvashee Gogoi, and Riya Saikia16.1 Introduction to Lyme Disease 20716.2 Modes of Transmission 20816.3 Recent Trends in Lyme Disease Management 20916.4 Future Directions and Challenges in Lyme Disease Management 21416.5 Conclusion 21517 Chagas Disease: Historical and Current Trends 220Vivek Patel, Dhara Patel, Grishma Patel, and Jayvadan K. Patel17.1 Introduction 22017.2 Discovery of Chagas Disease 22117.3 Etiology of Chagas Disease 22217.4 Lifecycle of T. cruzi 22217.5 Clinical Forms of Chagas Disease 22317.6 Diagnosis and Management of Chagas Disease 22417.7 Conclusion 23118 Legionnaires’ Disease: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 237Julia Wang, Neha Chintapally, Meera Nagpal, Anjali Mahapatra, and Charles Preuss18.1 History of Legionella spp. 23718.2 Bacterial Life Cycle 23818.3 Pathogenicity 23818.4 Alterations to Host Cell Pathways 23918.5 Ubiquitin Pathways 24018.6 Legionella-Amoeba Interactions 24118.7 Risk Factors 24118.8 Detection/Diagnostic Testing 24118.9 Symptoms 24218.10 Long-Term Effects and Co-morbidities 24318.11 Prevention 24318.12 Pharmacology 24418.13 Treatments in Development 24518.14 New Technologies 24618.15 Conclusion 24819 Babesiosis: An Emerging Global Threat 253Komal Parmar and Jayvadan K. Patel19.1 Introduction 25319.2 World-Wide Babesiosis Human Infection 25319.3 Life Cycle and Transmission 25519.4 Clinical Features, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Babesiosis 25619.5 Management of Babesiosis 25619.6 Conclusion 25720 Epidemiology and Current Trends in Malaria 261Priya Patel, Arti Bagada, and Nasir Vadia20.1 History of Malaria 26120.2 Types of Malaria 26220.3 Worldwide Trend of Malaria (Geographical and Country)/The Spatial Epidemiology of Malaria Globally 26420.4 History of Malaria Control by Various Authorities/Agencies 26720.5 Diagnosis and Treatment 27020.6 Prevention and Elimination of Malaria 27220.7 Vaccine for Malaria and Current Trends of Malaria Treatment 27320.8 Challenges for National Governments 27520.9 Malaria Eradication Programme 27620.10 Conclusion 27821 Cryptosporidiosis: Recent Advances in Diagnostics and Management 283Subhasundar Maji, Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Debankini Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, and Sandipan Dasgupta21.1 Introduction 28321.2 Epidemiology 28421.3 What Is Cryptosporidium? 28421.4 Mechanism of Cryptosporidium Infection 28621.5 Diagnostic Methods 28721.6 Management 28821.7 Prevention and Control 29121.8 Future Perspectives 29321.9 Conclusion 29422 Leishmaniasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 297Ismaila Adams, Awo A. Kwapong, Eugene Boafo, Elizabeth Twum, and Seth K. Amponsah22.1 Introduction 29722.2 Leishmania Species and Clinical Manifestations 29822.3 Microbiology of Leishmania 29922.4 Diagnosis of Leishmaniasis 30122.5 Drug Therapy for Leishmaniasis 30322.6 Drug Resistance in Leishmania 30422.7 Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance in Leishmania 30522.8 New Developments in Antileishmanial Drugs 30622.9 Repurposing Existing Drugs 30822.10 Vector Control and Leishmaniasis Prevention 30922.11 Conclusion 30923 Recent Trends in Toxoplasmosis Diagnosis and Management 314Mehul Chorawala, Nirjari Kothari, Aayushi Shah, Aanshi Pandya, Ishika Shah, and Bhupendra G. Prajapati23.1 Introduction 31423.2 Recent Advances in Diagnosis 31923.3 Current Management of Toxoplasmosis 32123.4 Need for Novel Treatment 32423.5 Novel or Repurposed Therapeutic Molecules as Anti-Toxoplasma Activity 32423.6 Conclusion and Outlook 32924 Recent Trends in Neurocysticerosis Diagnosis and Management 337Sachin P. Bhatt, Avani N. Joshi, and Bhupendra G. PrajapatiAbbreviations 33724.1 Introduction 33724.2 Immunologic Diagnosis 34124.3 Management Approaches by Neurocysticercosis Form 34424.4 Conclusion 34725 Trichinosis: History and Current Trends 351Moitreyee Chattopadhyay, Sandipan Dasgupta, Ananya Chanda, Subhasundar Maji, and Shwetlana Bandyopadhyay25.1 Background 35125.2 Historical Reports of Trichinosis Infection 35125.3 The Discovery of Trichinosis 35225.4 Major Outbreaks of Trichinosis 35325.5 Trichinosis Episodes in Animals 35625.6 The Nematode: Trichinella sp. 35825.8 Control of Trichinella Infection in Humans 36325.9 Current Trend in Trichinella Epidemiology 36325.10 Conclusion 36426 Schistosomiasis: Recent Clinical Reports and Management 368Emmanuel K. Ofori and Akua O. Forson26.1 Introduction 36826.2 Parasitology Diagnosis 37126.3 Biomarkers: Screening, Detection of Worm Antigens and Specific Antibodies 37126.4 Radiology 37226.5 Management 37226.6 Conclusion 37427 Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis: Evolutionary Dynamics, Advances in Diagnostics and Therapeutic Interventions 378Lucy Mohapatra, Alok S. Tripathi, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Alka, Deepak Mishra, Mohammad Yasir, and Rahul K. Maurya27.1 Introduction 37827.2 Epidemiology for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 37927.3 Pathogenesis of Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 37927.4 Evolutionary Dynamics Involved in Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38327.5 Diagnosis for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38527.6 Advances in Therapeutic Interventions for Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis 38727.7 Conclusion 38928 Epidemiology and Current Treatment Trends in “Thelaziasis” 396Rihana B. Patnool, Badrud D. Mohammad, Vishwas H. Nagendra, Bhupendra G. Prajapati, Muhasina K. Muhamadkazim, and Sivasankaran Ponnusankar28.1 Introduction 39628.2 Causative Agents 39728.3 Morphology 39928.4 Mode of Transmission 40228.5 Hosts and Vectors 40328.6 Life Cycle of Thelazia Species 40528.7 Molecular Acumens of Thelaziasis Species 40628.8 Geographical Distribution 40628.9 Clinical Presentations of Thelaziasis 40728.10 Diagnosis of Thelaziasis 40728.11 Treatment Options for Thelaziasis 40728.12 Precautionary Measures 40828.13 Preventive Measures for Thelaziasis 40828.14 Recent Trends in Thelaziasis Control 40928.15 Conclusion 40929 Trypanosomiasis: Current Trends in Microbiology and Pharmacology 411Verner N. Orish29.1 Introduction 41129.2 History 41229.3 Parasite 41329.4 Epidemiology of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) 41629.5 Life Cycle of Trypanosoma 41729.6 Other Mechanisms of Transmission 41829.7 Pathogenesis of HAT 41929.8 Clinical Manifestations 42029.9 Diagnosis 42029.10 Treatment 42129.11 Control and Prevention 42329.12 Challenges of Control and Prevention 42429.13 Conclusion 42430 Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases of the Decade: Current Challenges and Future Directions 428Seth K. Amponsah, Ranjita Shegokar, and Yashwant V. Pathak30.1 Introduction 42830.2 Factors Leading to the Emergence and Re-Emergence of Infectious Diseases 42930.3 Current Challenges of Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases 43030.4 Strategies/Possible Interventions 43130.5 Future Directions 43330.6 Conclusion 434References 434Index 438