Textbook of Neuroanatomy

Maria A. Patestas, PhD, is a retired Professor Emerita of Anatomy in the Anatomy Department at Des Moines University. In her career she has accumulated over 31 years of teaching experience of the anatomical subdisciplines, including Neuroanatomy, Cell and Tissue Biology, Human Development and Gross Anatomy to medical, podiatric, physical therapy, physician assistant and graduate students. She has received the Distinguished Teaching Award, the Dean’s Basic Scientist Educator Award, and the Distinguished Scholar Award. Amanda J. Meyer, PhD, FHEA, is a Senior Lecturer in the Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology within the College of Medicine and Dentistry at James Cook University in Townsville, Queensland, Australia. She is an anatomist and educator with nearly 15 years of experience teaching anatomical sciences at the tertiary level, including neuroanatomy, gross anatomy, and histology, to biomedical, medical, and allied health students ranging from first-year undergraduate to doctoral levels. Her research focuses on developing effective methods for teaching anatomy to maximize student learning, with a particular interest in student metacognition. Leslie P. Gartner, PhD, is a retired Professor of Anatomy in the Department of Biomedical Sciences at Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, Dental School, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland. His various textbooks on Histology have been translated into twelve languages. He has received several outstanding teaching awards, including the coveted Frank J. Sinnreich Award for Excellence in Teaching (Dental School); the University System of Maryland Board of Regents Faculty Award for Excellence in Teaching; and the Celebration of Excellence in Teaching Award (Dental School).

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xiiiAbout the Companion Website xvPart I General Principles of the Nervous System 1Chapter 1 Introduction to the Nervous System 3Cells of the Central Nervous System 5Central Nervous System 6Peripheral Nervous System 9Questions to Ponder 10Chapter 2 Development of the Nervous System 11Clinical Case 11Early Development 12Neurulation 14Early Development of the Spinal Cord and Brain 19Development of the Spinal Cord 21Development of the Brain 23Clinical Considerations 30Synonyms and Eponyms of the Nervous System 31Follow-up to Clinical Case 31Questions to Ponder 31Chapter 3 Histophysiology of the Nervous System 32Clinical Case 32Neurons 33Neuroglia 40Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulses 44Clinical Considerations 47Synonyms and Eponyms of Nervous System Histophysiology 48Follow-up to Clinical Case 48Questions to Ponder 48Chapter 4 Neurotransmitter Substances 49Clinical Case 49Classification of Neurotransmitter Substances 52Clinical Considerations 58Follow-up to Clinical Case 59Questions to Ponder 59Chapter 5 Spinal Cord 60Clinical Case 60Morphology of the Spinal Cord 61Internal Morphology of the Spinal Cord 67Vascular Supply of the Spinal Cord 70Clinical Considerations 73Synonyms and Eponyms of the Spinal Cord 74Follow-up to Clinical Case 74Questions to Ponder 74Chapter 6 Gross Anatomy of the Brain 75Clinical Case 75Cerebrum 76Diencephalon 84Cerebellum 85Brainstem 87Clinical Considerations 88Synonyms and Eponyms of the Brain 90Follow-up to Clinical Case 90Questions to Ponder 90Chapter 7 Brainstem 91Clinical Case 91Internal Organization of the Brainstem 91Medulla Oblongata 96Pons 102Midbrain 107Clinical Considerations 111Synonyms and Eponyms of the Brainstem 116Follow-up to Clinical Case 116Questions to Ponder 116Chapter 8 Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid 117Clinical Case 117Cranial Meninges 118Spinal Meninges 126Venous Sinuses of the Cranial Dura Mater 127Cerebrospinal Fluid 130Ventricles of the Brain 130Clinical Considerations 131Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cranial Meninges 132Follow-up to Clinical Case 132Questions to Ponder 132Chapter 9 Vascular Supply of the Central Nervous System 133Clinical Case 133Vascular Supply of the Spinal Cord 134Arterial Supply of the Brain 135Venous Drainage of the Brain 149Clinical Considerations 152Synonyms and Eponyms of the Vascular Supply of the Central Nervous System 153Follow-up to Clinical Case 153Questions to Ponder 153Chapter 10 Autonomic Nervous System 154Clinical Case 154Sympathetic Nervous System 157Parasympathetic Nervous System 164Enteric Nervous System 167Neurotransmitters and Receptors of the Autonomic Nervous System 168Pelvic Autonomic Functions 169Clinical Considerations 171Synonyms and Eponyms of the Autonomic Nervous System 172Follow-up to Clinical Case 172Questions to Ponder 172Chapter 11 Spinal Reflexes 173Clinical Case 173Components of Reflexes 173Lower Motor Neurons 174Skeletal Muscle Innervation 175Skeletal Muscle Receptors 176Muscle Stretch Reflex 176Reciprocal Inhibition 177Autogenic Inhibition (Inverse Myotatic Reflex) 178Flexor Reflex (Withdrawal Reflex, Nociceptive Reflex) 178Crossed Extension Reflex 179Maintenance of Muscle tone Via the Gamma Loop 180Alpha–Gamma Coactivation 180Synonyms and Eponyms of the Spinal Reflexes 182Follow-up to Clinical Case 182Questions to Ponder 182Part II Integrative Components of the Nervous System 183Chapter 12 Ascending Sensory Pathways 185Clinical Case 185Sensory Receptors 187Anterolateral System 197Tactile Sensation and Proprioception 207Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum 214Clinical Considerations 218Modulation of Nociception 226Neuroplasticity 229Synonyms and Eponyms of the Ascending Sensory Pathways 229Follow-up to Clinical Case 230Questions to Ponder 230Chapter 13 Motor Cortex and Descending Motor Pathways 231Clinical Case 231Cortical Areas Controlling Motor Activity 232Descending Motor Pathways 235Clinical Considerations 249Synonyms and Eponyms of the Motor Cortex and Descending Motor Pathways 253Follow-up to Clinical Case 254Questions to Ponder 254Chapter 14 Basal Nuclei 255Clinical Case 255Components of the Basal Nuclei 256Nuclei Associated with the Basal Nuclei 260Input, Intrinsic, and Output Nuclei of the Basal Nuclei 261Connections of the Basal Nuclei 263Circuits Connecting the Basal Nuclei, Thalamus, and Cerebral Cortex 270Other Circuits of the Basal Nuclei 273Neurotransmitters of the Basal Nuclei 274“Direct,” “Indirect,” and “Hyperdirect” Loops (Pathways) of the Basal Nuclei 275Circuits that Modulate Activity of the Basal Nuclei 277Clinical Considerations 278Synonyms and Eponyms of the Basal Nuclei 283Follow-up to Clinical Case 284Questions to Ponder 284Chapter 15 Cerebellum 285Clinical Case 285Morphology of the Cerebellum 287Cerebellar Peduncles 296Deep Cerebellar Nuclei 298Afferents (Input) to the Cerebellum 301Efferents (Output) from the Cerebellum 304Functional Organization of the Cerebellum: Intrinsic Circuitry 305Clinical Considerations 307Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cerebellum 309Follow-up to Clinical Case 309Questions to Ponder 309Chapter 16 Reticular Formation 310Clinical Case 310Morphology of the Reticular Formation 311Zones of the Reticular Formation 312Nuclei Associated with the Reticular Formation 314Input to and Output from the Reticular Formation 314Functions of the Reticular Formation 315Clinical Considerations 321Synonyms and Eponyms of the Reticular Formation 322Follow-up to Clinical Case 322Questions to Ponder 322Chapter 17 Cranial Nerves 323Clinical Case 323Olfactory Nerve (CN I) 329Optic Nerve (CN II) 329Oculomotor Nerve (CN III) 329Trochlear Nerve (CN IV) 331Clinical Considerations 331Trigeminal Nerve (CN V) 334Clinical Considerations 340Abducens Nerve (CN VI) 341Clinical Considerations 342Facial Nerve (CN VII) 346Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) 348Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX) 349Clinical Considerations 349Clinical Considerations 353Vagus Nerve (CN X) 353Clinical Considerations 354Accessory Nerve (CN XI) 354Clinical Considerations 357Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII) 357Clinical Considerations 358Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cranial Nerves 359Follow-up to Clinical Case 360Questions to Ponder 360Chapter 18 Visual System 361Clinical Case 361Eyeball 361Central Visual Pathways 367Visual Reflexes 377Clinical Considerations 384Synonyms and Eponyms of the Visual System 387Follow-up to Clinical Case 387Questions to Ponder 387Chapter 19 Auditory System 388Clinical Case 388Ear 389Auditory Transmission 393Central Auditory Pathways 394Clinical Considerations 403Synonyms and Eponyms of the Auditory System 404Follow-up to Clinical Case 404Questions to Ponder 404Chapter 20 Vestibular System 405Clinical Case 405Vestibular Apparatus 406Vestibular Nerve (CN VIII) 411Central Pathways of the Vestibular System 413Control of Ocular Movements 417Vestibular Nystagmus 421Caloric Nystagmus 421Synonyms and Eponyms of the Vestibular System 423Follow-up to Clinical Case 423Questions to Ponder 423Chapter 21 Olfactory System 424Clinical Case 424Olfactory Receptor Neurons 425Olfactory Transduction 427Olfactory Nerve (CN I) 428Central Connections of the Olfactory System 429Blood Supply and Drainage 431Clinical Considerations 432Synonyms and Eponyms of the Olfactory System 433Follow-up to Clinical Case 433Questions to Ponder 433Chapter 22 Limbic System 434Clinical Case 434Limbic Lobe 435Brainstem Centers Associated with Limbic System Function 446Pathways of the Limbic System 446Limbic Association Cortex 449Limbic System Input to the Endocrine, Autonomic, and Somatic Motor Systems 449Clinical Considerations 450Synonyms and Eponyms of the Limbic System 451Follow-up to Clinical Case 451Questions to Ponder 452Chapter 23 Hypothalamus 453Clinical Case 453Borders 454Hypothalamic Zones and Component Nuclei 455Hypothalamic Regions (Areas) and Component Nuclei 457Connections of the Hypothalamus 462Pathways of the Hypothalamus 463Functions of the Hypothalamus 466Hypothalamohypophyseal Connections 469Clinical Considerations 475Synonyms and Eponyms of the Hypothalamus 477Follow-up to Clinical Case 478Questions to Ponder 478Chapter 24 Thalamus 480Clinical Case 480Borders 480Anatomy 482Internal and External Medullary Laminae 483Thalamic Nuclei 484Clinical Considerations 491Synonyms and Eponyms of the Thalamus 492Follow-up to Clinical Case 492Questions to Ponder 493Chapter 25 Cerebral Cortex 494Clinical Case 494Cells of the Cerebral Cortex 496Types of Cortex 498Cell Layers of the Neocortex 499Vertical Columnar Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 500Afferents (Input) to the Cerebral Cortex 500Efferents (Output) from the Cerebral Cortex 501Internal Capsule and Corona Radiata 504Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 504Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 505Cerebral Dominance 512Clinical Considerations 515Synonyms and Eponyms of the Cerebral Cortex 519Follow-up to Clinical Case 520Questions to Ponder 521Chapter 26 Evolution of the Human Brain 522Evolutionary Biology Fundamentals 522Early Hominins 522Non-Human Primates 522Modern Human Brains 523Prenatal and Postnatal Development 523Questions to ponder: answers to odd questions 524Questions to ponder: answers to even questions 533Answers to clinical case margin questions 541Index 545