INNOCENT CHILUWA is a Professor of Applied Linguistics and Media and Communication Studies. He is a Visiting Professor at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, and a Visiting Scholar at the University of Edinburgh. ANNA SZCZEPANIAK-KOZAK is an Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.

• Notes on ContributorsxiiiForeword xviii1 Introduction: How Social Media and Artificial Intelligence Construct the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 1Innocent Chiluwa and Anna Szczepaniak- Kozak1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 The Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence 21.2 Summary of Chapters 51.3 Concluding Remarks 8References 9Part 1 Constructing Warfare in Algorithmic and AI-Generated Content 112 War in the Digital Realm: A Critical Study of Online Psychological Warfare in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 13Mohul Sen and Nitesh Tripathi2.1 Introduction 132.1.1 Defining Psychological Warfare, Propaganda, and Media Manipulation 142.1.2 Online Psychological Warfare and Manipulation 142.1.3 History of Digital Warfare 152.1.4 Impact of Digital Warfare on Global Security 162.2 Framing of War in the Media 162.2.1 Impact of Online Warfare 172.3 Methodology 182.4 Analysis and Findings 192.4.1 Posts by the Israel Defense Forces 192.4.1.1 Tweets by the Prime Minister of Israel 202.4.1.2 Tweets by the Israel Foreign Ministry 202.4.1.3 Tweet by Amichai Chikli— Minister of Diaspora Affairs of Israel 212.4.1.4 Tweets by Bezalel Smotrich, Israeli Finance Minister 222.4.1.5 Tweet by the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament 242.4.2 Posts from Palestine: Younis Tirawi, a Palestinian Journalist 252.4.2.1 Tweet by Husam Zomlot, a Palestinian Diplomat 262.5 Discussion and Conclusion 27References 283 Algorithmic Imaginaries: AI- Generated Visual Narratives of the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 30Emre Meriç, Rahmi Uysal, and Onur Aker3.1 Introduction 303.2 Literature Review 313.3 Data and Method 343.4 Findings 363.4.1 Visual Representations of Prompt #1: Destruction and Combat Aftermath 363.4.2 Visual Representations of Prompt #2: Civilian Perspectives and Conflict Impact 383.4.3 Visual Representations of Prompt #3: Peace and Negotiation 403.5 Discussion: Visual Elements in Conflict: Comparative Semiotic Analysis Across Platforms 443.6 Conclusion 47References 484 Generic War Imaginaries: AI- Generated Images of the Israel– Gaza Conflict in the Adobe Stock Controversy 51Stefano Brilli, Laura Gemini, and Chiara Spaggiari4.1 Introduction: War as a Mediatized Process 514.2 The Post- photographic Turn and Documentary Photography 524.3 Methodology 544.4 The Adobe Controversy: Background Analysis 554.5 Findings 574.5.1 Production Site 574.5.2 Circulation Site 594.5.3 Audiencing Site 614.6 Conclusion 64References 665 “Digital Justice in Wartime”. Content Strategy and Advocacy in the Coded Scenario 68Sara Concetta Santoriello5.1 Introduction 685.2 Watermelon Strategy Beyond Advocacy and Elusion 705.3 Terrorist Content Moderation: A Cross- platform Comparison 725.4 Double Standards in Policy- making 785.5 Conclusions 81References 82Part 2 Digital Activism and Resistance 856 Legitimating War and Retaliation in #IsraelUnderFire and #PrayForIsrael 87Innocent Chiluwa and Katerina Strani6.1 Introduction: The Israeli– Palestinian Conflict and the October 7Attacks 876.2 Legitimation in Discourse 886.3 Hashtag Activism 906.4 Data and Method 916.4.1 Van Leeuwen’s Analytical Framework 916.5 Analysis and Discussion 936.5.1 Legitimation by Religion, Spiritual Authority, and Mythopoesis 936.5.2 Rationalization of the Right to Self- defense and Right to Exist 966.6 Conclusion 98References 997 Disputing the Archive: Palestinian Women Filmmakers, AI, and the Battle over Representation 104Carlos Navarro González7.1 Introduction: An Initial Silence 1047.2 Cinema and Archive as Forms of Palestinian Resistance 1057.3 Palestinian Filmmakers and Design of AI Technology 1077.4 “Cheap Synthetic Realism” and the Language of the Occupier 1087.5 Contented Visions of Woman and Nationhood 1107.6 The Border and Palestinian Identity 1137.7 Conclusion 115Acknowledgments 116References 116Interviews 117Filmography 1178 Subverting Pro- Israeli Tweets and “Hasbara” on X 119Rhon Teruelle and Damani Wicks8.1 Introduction 1198.2 Pro- Israeli Media Bias 1208.3 Digital Activism 1228.4 Methods 1238.5 Summary of Findings 1248.6 Discussion and Conclusion 131References 1339 The Social Obligation Paradox: #BlockOut and Celebrity Silence in the Context of the Israel– Hamas War 138Hannah Blundon9.1 Introduction 1389.2 Research Design 1409.3 Analysis 1429.3.1 Digital Activism as Contemporary Political Engagement 1429.3.2 Navigating Uncertainty: Information Gaps and the Demand for Clarity 1449.3.3 Intimacy and Irritation: Parasocial Relationships, Anti- Fandom, and the Influencer Economy 1469.3.4 Backlash, Accountability, and the Ethics of Celebrity Silence 1489.4 Conclusion: Reframing Influence, Accountability, and the Paradox of Public Expectation 150References 15210 [Re]Framing Victimhood: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Digital Narratives on the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 155Paulinus Nnorom, Oluwagbenga Kayode, and Bethel Obiyor10.1 Introduction 15510.2 Conceptualizing Victimhood in Digital Narratives 15610.2.1 Victimhood in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 15710.2.2 Digital Media, Contestation, and Framing in Conflict Narratives 15810.2.3 Conflict Cartoons as Visual Discourse 15810.3 Theoretical Paradigm: Multimodal Discourse Analysis 15910.4 Methodology 16010.5 Analysis and Discussions 16010.5.1 Representational, Interactional, and Compositional Meaning 16110.6 Findings and Conclusion 166References 167Part 3 Disinformation and Propaganda 17311 Disinformation, Propaganda, and Hate Discourses on the Israel– Hamas Wars 175Esra Demirci11.1 Introduction 17511.2 Media Framing of International Conflicts 17611.3 Methodology 17711.4 Analysis 17811.4.1 Anadolu Ajansı 17811.4.1.1 October 7 Hamas Attacks on October 7 in Three Questions (Anadolu Agency, October 7, 2023) 17811.4.1.2 U.S. President Biden: Too Many Innocent Civilians HaveLost Their Lives in Gaza (Anadolu Agency, February 13, 2024) 17911.4.1.3 Reactions from Around the World to Israel’s Bombing of the Camp in Rafah (Anadolu Agency, May 27, 2024) 18011.4.2 Al- Jazeera 18211.4.2.1 What Happened in Israel? A Breakdown of How Hamas Attack Unfolded (Al Jazeera, October 7, 2023) 18211.4.2.2 U.S. Pressure Could Derail ICC Arrest Warrants for Israeli Leaders (Al Jazeera, May 24, 2024) 18311.4.2.3 What Do We Know About the Israel– Hamas Ceasefire Deal in Gaza? (Al Jazeera, January 15, 2025) 18311.4.3 BBC 18411.4.3.1 Hamas Blindsides Israel with Most Serious Attack in a Generation (BBC, October 7, 2023) 18411.4.3.2 Top U.N. Court Orders Israel to Stop Rafah Offensive (BBC, May 25, 2024) 18411.4.3.3 U.N. Says Worker Killed in Gaza as Israeli Air Strikes Resume (BBC, March 19, 2023) 18511.4.4 Wall Street Journal 18511.4.4.1 Israel Works to Expel Hamas Intruders and Secure Border (WSJ, October 8, 2023) 18511.4.4.2 U.N. Court Orders Israel to Halt Some Military Operations in Rafah (WSJ, May 24, 2024) 18611.4.4.3 Gaza Ceasefire Hit by Last- minute Delay (WSJ, January 19, 2025) 18611.4.4.4 Overall Framing Tendencies and Code Relationships by Maxqda 18711.5 Discussion 18711.6 Conclusion 189References 190Web References 19112 Algorithmic Bias in Social Media Platforms During Israel– Hamas War (2023– 2025): How Algorithms Magnify Divisive and Misleading Information 193Muhammad Osama Shafiq12.1 Introduction: The Digital Battlefield 19312.2 AI Ranking Algorithms: Signals and Dynamics 19412.3 Reinforcement Learning and Feedback Loops in Amplification 19512.4 Platform Governance and Human- AI Moderation Architecture 19612.5 Algorithmic Bias, Shadow Banning, and Content Suppression 19812.5.1 General Concepts of Algorithmic Bias 19812.5.2 Bias and Suppression in the Israel– Hamas Conflict 19912.5.3 Legislative and Symbolic Context 20012.6 Methodology 20112.6.1 Findings from Personal Communication: Documented Cases of Content Restriction 20112.7 Legal and Policy Influences on Algorithmic Moderation 20412.8 Conclusion 206References 20713 Tactical Visibility: Algorithmic Affect and the Struggle Over Representation 209Ayşe Aslı Bozdağ13.1 Introduction 20913.1.1 Visibility, Politics, and Representation 20913.1.2 Algorithmic Visibility and the Politics of Amplification 21013.2 Analysis and Discussion 21213.2.1 Affect Above All: Infotainment 21313.2.2 Gamified War 21313.2.3 Glitches as Affective Cracks 21513.2.4 Affective Algorithmics and Tactical Visibility 21713.3 Conclusion 220References 22114 Weaponizing Lies on Social Media: Disinformation on the Israel– Palestine Conflict as Classified by PolitiFact 228Aftab Hossain, Gregory John Simons, Abdul Kabil Khan, and Sakibul Alam14.1 Introduction 22814.1.1 Misinformation in Conflict Zones 22914.1.2 Why the Israel– Palestine Conflict Is Vulnerable to Misinformation 23014.1.2.1 Polarized Audiences and Confirmation Bias 23014.1.2.2 Social Media and the Spread of False Narratives 23014.1.3 Social Media, Misinformation, War, and Geopolitics 23114.2 Methodology 23214.2.1 Categories of Misinformation 23314.2.2 Narrative Framing Techniques 23414.3 Analytical Techniques 23414.3.1 Descriptive Statistics 23514.3.2 Cross- tabulation 23514.3.3 Interpretive Narrative Analysis 23514.3.4 Validity and Reliability 23514.4 Analysis and Results 23614.4.1 Quantitative Results 23614.4.1.1 Narrative Framing Strategies 23614.4.2 Qualitative Analysis 23714.4.2.1 Amplifying Victimhood 23714.4.2.2 Justifying Violence 23814.4.2.3 Exploiting Historical Grievances 23814.4.2.4 Other 23814.4.3 Cross- analysis: Category vs. Narrative Strategy 23914.4.4 Discussion and Conclusion 239References 24115 How IDF TikTok Videos Aestheticize War into Entertainment after October 7, 2023 246Carolin Constanze Melz15.1 Introduction 24615.2 TikTok and the Culture of Spectacle 24715.3 The Military- Entertainment Complex Amplified on TikTok 24815.4 Theoretical Framework 24915.5 Methodology 25015.6 Analysis: The Spectacle of War on TikTok 25215.6.1 Video 1: The Domestic as Theatre 25215.6.1.1 Absence of the Victim 25515.6.2 Video 2: Femininity as Soft Propaganda 25515.6.3 Video 3: Bombing as Cinematic Performance 25815.7 Conclusion: From Spectacle to Moral Numbness 261References 262Index 264

INNOCENT CHILUWA is a Professor of Applied Linguistics and Media and Communication Studies. He is a Visiting Professor at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, and a Visiting Scholar at the University of Edinburgh. ANNA SZCZEPANIAK-KOZAK is an Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.

• Notes on ContributorsxiiiForeword xviii1 Introduction: How Social Media and Artificial Intelligence Construct the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 1Innocent Chiluwa and Anna Szczepaniak- Kozak1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 The Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence 21.2 Summary of Chapters 51.3 Concluding Remarks 8References 9Part 1 Constructing Warfare in Algorithmic and AI-Generated Content 112 War in the Digital Realm: A Critical Study of Online Psychological Warfare in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 13Mohul Sen and Nitesh Tripathi2.1 Introduction 132.1.1 Defining Psychological Warfare, Propaganda, and Media Manipulation 142.1.2 Online Psychological Warfare and Manipulation 142.1.3 History of Digital Warfare 152.1.4 Impact of Digital Warfare on Global Security 162.2 Framing of War in the Media 162.2.1 Impact of Online Warfare 172.3 Methodology 182.4 Analysis and Findings 192.4.1 Posts by the Israel Defense Forces 192.4.1.1 Tweets by the Prime Minister of Israel 202.4.1.2 Tweets by the Israel Foreign Ministry 202.4.1.3 Tweet by Amichai Chikli— Minister of Diaspora Affairs of Israel 212.4.1.4 Tweets by Bezalel Smotrich, Israeli Finance Minister 222.4.1.5 Tweet by the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament 242.4.2 Posts from Palestine: Younis Tirawi, a Palestinian Journalist 252.4.2.1 Tweet by Husam Zomlot, a Palestinian Diplomat 262.5 Discussion and Conclusion 27References 283 Algorithmic Imaginaries: AI- Generated Visual Narratives of the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 30Emre Meriç, Rahmi Uysal, and Onur Aker3.1 Introduction 303.2 Literature Review 313.3 Data and Method 343.4 Findings 363.4.1 Visual Representations of Prompt #1: Destruction and Combat Aftermath 363.4.2 Visual Representations of Prompt #2: Civilian Perspectives and Conflict Impact 383.4.3 Visual Representations of Prompt #3: Peace and Negotiation 403.5 Discussion: Visual Elements in Conflict: Comparative Semiotic Analysis Across Platforms 443.6 Conclusion 47References 484 Generic War Imaginaries: AI- Generated Images of the Israel– Gaza Conflict in the Adobe Stock Controversy 51Stefano Brilli, Laura Gemini, and Chiara Spaggiari4.1 Introduction: War as a Mediatized Process 514.2 The Post- photographic Turn and Documentary Photography 524.3 Methodology 544.4 The Adobe Controversy: Background Analysis 554.5 Findings 574.5.1 Production Site 574.5.2 Circulation Site 594.5.3 Audiencing Site 614.6 Conclusion 64References 665 “Digital Justice in Wartime”. Content Strategy and Advocacy in the Coded Scenario 68Sara Concetta Santoriello5.1 Introduction 685.2 Watermelon Strategy Beyond Advocacy and Elusion 705.3 Terrorist Content Moderation: A Cross- platform Comparison 725.4 Double Standards in Policy- making 785.5 Conclusions 81References 82Part 2 Digital Activism and Resistance 856 Legitimating War and Retaliation in #IsraelUnderFire and #PrayForIsrael 87Innocent Chiluwa and Katerina Strani6.1 Introduction: The Israeli– Palestinian Conflict and the October 7Attacks 876.2 Legitimation in Discourse 886.3 Hashtag Activism 906.4 Data and Method 916.4.1 Van Leeuwen’s Analytical Framework 916.5 Analysis and Discussion 936.5.1 Legitimation by Religion, Spiritual Authority, and Mythopoesis 936.5.2 Rationalization of the Right to Self- defense and Right to Exist 966.6 Conclusion 98References 997 Disputing the Archive: Palestinian Women Filmmakers, AI, and the Battle over Representation 104Carlos Navarro González7.1 Introduction: An Initial Silence 1047.2 Cinema and Archive as Forms of Palestinian Resistance 1057.3 Palestinian Filmmakers and Design of AI Technology 1077.4 “Cheap Synthetic Realism” and the Language of the Occupier 1087.5 Contented Visions of Woman and Nationhood 1107.6 The Border and Palestinian Identity 1137.7 Conclusion 115Acknowledgments 116References 116Interviews 117Filmography 1178 Subverting Pro- Israeli Tweets and “Hasbara” on X 119Rhon Teruelle and Damani Wicks8.1 Introduction 1198.2 Pro- Israeli Media Bias 1208.3 Digital Activism 1228.4 Methods 1238.5 Summary of Findings 1248.6 Discussion and Conclusion 131References 1339 The Social Obligation Paradox: #BlockOut and Celebrity Silence in the Context of the Israel– Hamas War 138Hannah Blundon9.1 Introduction 1389.2 Research Design 1409.3 Analysis 1429.3.1 Digital Activism as Contemporary Political Engagement 1429.3.2 Navigating Uncertainty: Information Gaps and the Demand for Clarity 1449.3.3 Intimacy and Irritation: Parasocial Relationships, Anti- Fandom, and the Influencer Economy 1469.3.4 Backlash, Accountability, and the Ethics of Celebrity Silence 1489.4 Conclusion: Reframing Influence, Accountability, and the Paradox of Public Expectation 150References 15210 [Re]Framing Victimhood: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Digital Narratives on the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 155Paulinus Nnorom, Oluwagbenga Kayode, and Bethel Obiyor10.1 Introduction 15510.2 Conceptualizing Victimhood in Digital Narratives 15610.2.1 Victimhood in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 15710.2.2 Digital Media, Contestation, and Framing in Conflict Narratives 15810.2.3 Conflict Cartoons as Visual Discourse 15810.3 Theoretical Paradigm: Multimodal Discourse Analysis 15910.4 Methodology 16010.5 Analysis and Discussions 16010.5.1 Representational, Interactional, and Compositional Meaning 16110.6 Findings and Conclusion 166References 167Part 3 Disinformation and Propaganda 17311 Disinformation, Propaganda, and Hate Discourses on the Israel– Hamas Wars 175Esra Demirci11.1 Introduction 17511.2 Media Framing of International Conflicts 17611.3 Methodology 17711.4 Analysis 17811.4.1 Anadolu Ajansı 17811.4.1.1 October 7 Hamas Attacks on October 7 in Three Questions (Anadolu Agency, October 7, 2023) 17811.4.1.2 U.S. President Biden: Too Many Innocent Civilians HaveLost Their Lives in Gaza (Anadolu Agency, February 13, 2024) 17911.4.1.3 Reactions from Around the World to Israel’s Bombing of the Camp in Rafah (Anadolu Agency, May 27, 2024) 18011.4.2 Al- Jazeera 18211.4.2.1 What Happened in Israel? A Breakdown of How Hamas Attack Unfolded (Al Jazeera, October 7, 2023) 18211.4.2.2 U.S. Pressure Could Derail ICC Arrest Warrants for Israeli Leaders (Al Jazeera, May 24, 2024) 18311.4.2.3 What Do We Know About the Israel– Hamas Ceasefire Deal in Gaza? (Al Jazeera, January 15, 2025) 18311.4.3 BBC 18411.4.3.1 Hamas Blindsides Israel with Most Serious Attack in a Generation (BBC, October 7, 2023) 18411.4.3.2 Top U.N. Court Orders Israel to Stop Rafah Offensive (BBC, May 25, 2024) 18411.4.3.3 U.N. Says Worker Killed in Gaza as Israeli Air Strikes Resume (BBC, March 19, 2023) 18511.4.4 Wall Street Journal 18511.4.4.1 Israel Works to Expel Hamas Intruders and Secure Border (WSJ, October 8, 2023) 18511.4.4.2 U.N. Court Orders Israel to Halt Some Military Operations in Rafah (WSJ, May 24, 2024) 18611.4.4.3 Gaza Ceasefire Hit by Last- minute Delay (WSJ, January 19, 2025) 18611.4.4.4 Overall Framing Tendencies and Code Relationships by Maxqda 18711.5 Discussion 18711.6 Conclusion 189References 190Web References 19112 Algorithmic Bias in Social Media Platforms During Israel– Hamas War (2023– 2025): How Algorithms Magnify Divisive and Misleading Information 193Muhammad Osama Shafiq12.1 Introduction: The Digital Battlefield 19312.2 AI Ranking Algorithms: Signals and Dynamics 19412.3 Reinforcement Learning and Feedback Loops in Amplification 19512.4 Platform Governance and Human- AI Moderation Architecture 19612.5 Algorithmic Bias, Shadow Banning, and Content Suppression 19812.5.1 General Concepts of Algorithmic Bias 19812.5.2 Bias and Suppression in the Israel– Hamas Conflict 19912.5.3 Legislative and Symbolic Context 20012.6 Methodology 20112.6.1 Findings from Personal Communication: Documented Cases of Content Restriction 20112.7 Legal and Policy Influences on Algorithmic Moderation 20412.8 Conclusion 206References 20713 Tactical Visibility: Algorithmic Affect and the Struggle Over Representation 209Ayşe Aslı Bozdağ13.1 Introduction 20913.1.1 Visibility, Politics, and Representation 20913.1.2 Algorithmic Visibility and the Politics of Amplification 21013.2 Analysis and Discussion 21213.2.1 Affect Above All: Infotainment 21313.2.2 Gamified War 21313.2.3 Glitches as Affective Cracks 21513.2.4 Affective Algorithmics and Tactical Visibility 21713.3 Conclusion 220References 22114 Weaponizing Lies on Social Media: Disinformation on the Israel– Palestine Conflict as Classified by PolitiFact 228Aftab Hossain, Gregory John Simons, Abdul Kabil Khan, and Sakibul Alam14.1 Introduction 22814.1.1 Misinformation in Conflict Zones 22914.1.2 Why the Israel– Palestine Conflict Is Vulnerable to Misinformation 23014.1.2.1 Polarized Audiences and Confirmation Bias 23014.1.2.2 Social Media and the Spread of False Narratives 23014.1.3 Social Media, Misinformation, War, and Geopolitics 23114.2 Methodology 23214.2.1 Categories of Misinformation 23314.2.2 Narrative Framing Techniques 23414.3 Analytical Techniques 23414.3.1 Descriptive Statistics 23514.3.2 Cross- tabulation 23514.3.3 Interpretive Narrative Analysis 23514.3.4 Validity and Reliability 23514.4 Analysis and Results 23614.4.1 Quantitative Results 23614.4.1.1 Narrative Framing Strategies 23614.4.2 Qualitative Analysis 23714.4.2.1 Amplifying Victimhood 23714.4.2.2 Justifying Violence 23814.4.2.3 Exploiting Historical Grievances 23814.4.2.4 Other 23814.4.3 Cross- analysis: Category vs. Narrative Strategy 23914.4.4 Discussion and Conclusion 239References 24115 How IDF TikTok Videos Aestheticize War into Entertainment after October 7, 2023 246Carolin Constanze Melz15.1 Introduction 24615.2 TikTok and the Culture of Spectacle 24715.3 The Military- Entertainment Complex Amplified on TikTok 24815.4 Theoretical Framework 24915.5 Methodology 25015.6 Analysis: The Spectacle of War on TikTok 25215.6.1 Video 1: The Domestic as Theatre 25215.6.1.1 Absence of the Victim 25515.6.2 Video 2: Femininity as Soft Propaganda 25515.6.3 Video 3: Bombing as Cinematic Performance 25815.7 Conclusion: From Spectacle to Moral Numbness 261References 262Index 264

INNOCENT CHILUWA is a Professor of Applied Linguistics and Media and Communication Studies. He is a Visiting Professor at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, and a Visiting Scholar at the University of Edinburgh. ANNA SZCZEPANIAK-KOZAK is an Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.

• Notes on ContributorsxiiiForeword xviii1 Introduction: How Social Media and Artificial Intelligence Construct the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 1Innocent Chiluwa and Anna Szczepaniak- Kozak1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 The Conflict in the Age of Social Media and Artificial Intelligence 21.2 Summary of Chapters 51.3 Concluding Remarks 8References 9Part 1 Constructing Warfare in Algorithmic and AI-Generated Content 112 War in the Digital Realm: A Critical Study of Online Psychological Warfare in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 13Mohul Sen and Nitesh Tripathi2.1 Introduction 132.1.1 Defining Psychological Warfare, Propaganda, and Media Manipulation 142.1.2 Online Psychological Warfare and Manipulation 142.1.3 History of Digital Warfare 152.1.4 Impact of Digital Warfare on Global Security 162.2 Framing of War in the Media 162.2.1 Impact of Online Warfare 172.3 Methodology 182.4 Analysis and Findings 192.4.1 Posts by the Israel Defense Forces 192.4.1.1 Tweets by the Prime Minister of Israel 202.4.1.2 Tweets by the Israel Foreign Ministry 202.4.1.3 Tweet by Amichai Chikli— Minister of Diaspora Affairs of Israel 212.4.1.4 Tweets by Bezalel Smotrich, Israeli Finance Minister 222.4.1.5 Tweet by the Knesset, the Israeli Parliament 242.4.2 Posts from Palestine: Younis Tirawi, a Palestinian Journalist 252.4.2.1 Tweet by Husam Zomlot, a Palestinian Diplomat 262.5 Discussion and Conclusion 27References 283 Algorithmic Imaginaries: AI- Generated Visual Narratives of the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 30Emre Meriç, Rahmi Uysal, and Onur Aker3.1 Introduction 303.2 Literature Review 313.3 Data and Method 343.4 Findings 363.4.1 Visual Representations of Prompt #1: Destruction and Combat Aftermath 363.4.2 Visual Representations of Prompt #2: Civilian Perspectives and Conflict Impact 383.4.3 Visual Representations of Prompt #3: Peace and Negotiation 403.5 Discussion: Visual Elements in Conflict: Comparative Semiotic Analysis Across Platforms 443.6 Conclusion 47References 484 Generic War Imaginaries: AI- Generated Images of the Israel– Gaza Conflict in the Adobe Stock Controversy 51Stefano Brilli, Laura Gemini, and Chiara Spaggiari4.1 Introduction: War as a Mediatized Process 514.2 The Post- photographic Turn and Documentary Photography 524.3 Methodology 544.4 The Adobe Controversy: Background Analysis 554.5 Findings 574.5.1 Production Site 574.5.2 Circulation Site 594.5.3 Audiencing Site 614.6 Conclusion 64References 665 “Digital Justice in Wartime”. Content Strategy and Advocacy in the Coded Scenario 68Sara Concetta Santoriello5.1 Introduction 685.2 Watermelon Strategy Beyond Advocacy and Elusion 705.3 Terrorist Content Moderation: A Cross- platform Comparison 725.4 Double Standards in Policy- making 785.5 Conclusions 81References 82Part 2 Digital Activism and Resistance 856 Legitimating War and Retaliation in #IsraelUnderFire and #PrayForIsrael 87Innocent Chiluwa and Katerina Strani6.1 Introduction: The Israeli– Palestinian Conflict and the October 7Attacks 876.2 Legitimation in Discourse 886.3 Hashtag Activism 906.4 Data and Method 916.4.1 Van Leeuwen’s Analytical Framework 916.5 Analysis and Discussion 936.5.1 Legitimation by Religion, Spiritual Authority, and Mythopoesis 936.5.2 Rationalization of the Right to Self- defense and Right to Exist 966.6 Conclusion 98References 997 Disputing the Archive: Palestinian Women Filmmakers, AI, and the Battle over Representation 104Carlos Navarro González7.1 Introduction: An Initial Silence 1047.2 Cinema and Archive as Forms of Palestinian Resistance 1057.3 Palestinian Filmmakers and Design of AI Technology 1077.4 “Cheap Synthetic Realism” and the Language of the Occupier 1087.5 Contented Visions of Woman and Nationhood 1107.6 The Border and Palestinian Identity 1137.7 Conclusion 115Acknowledgments 116References 116Interviews 117Filmography 1178 Subverting Pro- Israeli Tweets and “Hasbara” on X 119Rhon Teruelle and Damani Wicks8.1 Introduction 1198.2 Pro- Israeli Media Bias 1208.3 Digital Activism 1228.4 Methods 1238.5 Summary of Findings 1248.6 Discussion and Conclusion 131References 1339 The Social Obligation Paradox: #BlockOut and Celebrity Silence in the Context of the Israel– Hamas War 138Hannah Blundon9.1 Introduction 1389.2 Research Design 1409.3 Analysis 1429.3.1 Digital Activism as Contemporary Political Engagement 1429.3.2 Navigating Uncertainty: Information Gaps and the Demand for Clarity 1449.3.3 Intimacy and Irritation: Parasocial Relationships, Anti- Fandom, and the Influencer Economy 1469.3.4 Backlash, Accountability, and the Ethics of Celebrity Silence 1489.4 Conclusion: Reframing Influence, Accountability, and the Paradox of Public Expectation 150References 15210 [Re]Framing Victimhood: A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Digital Narratives on the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 155Paulinus Nnorom, Oluwagbenga Kayode, and Bethel Obiyor10.1 Introduction 15510.2 Conceptualizing Victimhood in Digital Narratives 15610.2.1 Victimhood in the Israeli– Palestinian Conflict 15710.2.2 Digital Media, Contestation, and Framing in Conflict Narratives 15810.2.3 Conflict Cartoons as Visual Discourse 15810.3 Theoretical Paradigm: Multimodal Discourse Analysis 15910.4 Methodology 16010.5 Analysis and Discussions 16010.5.1 Representational, Interactional, and Compositional Meaning 16110.6 Findings and Conclusion 166References 167Part 3 Disinformation and Propaganda 17311 Disinformation, Propaganda, and Hate Discourses on the Israel– Hamas Wars 175Esra Demirci11.1 Introduction 17511.2 Media Framing of International Conflicts 17611.3 Methodology 17711.4 Analysis 17811.4.1 Anadolu Ajansı 17811.4.1.1 October 7 Hamas Attacks on October 7 in Three Questions (Anadolu Agency, October 7, 2023) 17811.4.1.2 U.S. President Biden: Too Many Innocent Civilians HaveLost Their Lives in Gaza (Anadolu Agency, February 13, 2024) 17911.4.1.3 Reactions from Around the World to Israel’s Bombing of the Camp in Rafah (Anadolu Agency, May 27, 2024) 18011.4.2 Al- Jazeera 18211.4.2.1 What Happened in Israel? A Breakdown of How Hamas Attack Unfolded (Al Jazeera, October 7, 2023) 18211.4.2.2 U.S. Pressure Could Derail ICC Arrest Warrants for Israeli Leaders (Al Jazeera, May 24, 2024) 18311.4.2.3 What Do We Know About the Israel– Hamas Ceasefire Deal in Gaza? (Al Jazeera, January 15, 2025) 18311.4.3 BBC 18411.4.3.1 Hamas Blindsides Israel with Most Serious Attack in a Generation (BBC, October 7, 2023) 18411.4.3.2 Top U.N. Court Orders Israel to Stop Rafah Offensive (BBC, May 25, 2024) 18411.4.3.3 U.N. Says Worker Killed in Gaza as Israeli Air Strikes Resume (BBC, March 19, 2023) 18511.4.4 Wall Street Journal 18511.4.4.1 Israel Works to Expel Hamas Intruders and Secure Border (WSJ, October 8, 2023) 18511.4.4.2 U.N. Court Orders Israel to Halt Some Military Operations in Rafah (WSJ, May 24, 2024) 18611.4.4.3 Gaza Ceasefire Hit by Last- minute Delay (WSJ, January 19, 2025) 18611.4.4.4 Overall Framing Tendencies and Code Relationships by Maxqda 18711.5 Discussion 18711.6 Conclusion 189References 190Web References 19112 Algorithmic Bias in Social Media Platforms During Israel– Hamas War (2023– 2025): How Algorithms Magnify Divisive and Misleading Information 193Muhammad Osama Shafiq12.1 Introduction: The Digital Battlefield 19312.2 AI Ranking Algorithms: Signals and Dynamics 19412.3 Reinforcement Learning and Feedback Loops in Amplification 19512.4 Platform Governance and Human- AI Moderation Architecture 19612.5 Algorithmic Bias, Shadow Banning, and Content Suppression 19812.5.1 General Concepts of Algorithmic Bias 19812.5.2 Bias and Suppression in the Israel– Hamas Conflict 19912.5.3 Legislative and Symbolic Context 20012.6 Methodology 20112.6.1 Findings from Personal Communication: Documented Cases of Content Restriction 20112.7 Legal and Policy Influences on Algorithmic Moderation 20412.8 Conclusion 206References 20713 Tactical Visibility: Algorithmic Affect and the Struggle Over Representation 209Ayşe Aslı Bozdağ13.1 Introduction 20913.1.1 Visibility, Politics, and Representation 20913.1.2 Algorithmic Visibility and the Politics of Amplification 21013.2 Analysis and Discussion 21213.2.1 Affect Above All: Infotainment 21313.2.2 Gamified War 21313.2.3 Glitches as Affective Cracks 21513.2.4 Affective Algorithmics and Tactical Visibility 21713.3 Conclusion 220References 22114 Weaponizing Lies on Social Media: Disinformation on the Israel– Palestine Conflict as Classified by PolitiFact 228Aftab Hossain, Gregory John Simons, Abdul Kabil Khan, and Sakibul Alam14.1 Introduction 22814.1.1 Misinformation in Conflict Zones 22914.1.2 Why the Israel– Palestine Conflict Is Vulnerable to Misinformation 23014.1.2.1 Polarized Audiences and Confirmation Bias 23014.1.2.2 Social Media and the Spread of False Narratives 23014.1.3 Social Media, Misinformation, War, and Geopolitics 23114.2 Methodology 23214.2.1 Categories of Misinformation 23314.2.2 Narrative Framing Techniques 23414.3 Analytical Techniques 23414.3.1 Descriptive Statistics 23514.3.2 Cross- tabulation 23514.3.3 Interpretive Narrative Analysis 23514.3.4 Validity and Reliability 23514.4 Analysis and Results 23614.4.1 Quantitative Results 23614.4.1.1 Narrative Framing Strategies 23614.4.2 Qualitative Analysis 23714.4.2.1 Amplifying Victimhood 23714.4.2.2 Justifying Violence 23814.4.2.3 Exploiting Historical Grievances 23814.4.2.4 Other 23814.4.3 Cross- analysis: Category vs. Narrative Strategy 23914.4.4 Discussion and Conclusion 239References 24115 How IDF TikTok Videos Aestheticize War into Entertainment after October 7, 2023 246Carolin Constanze Melz15.1 Introduction 24615.2 TikTok and the Culture of Spectacle 24715.3 The Military- Entertainment Complex Amplified on TikTok 24815.4 Theoretical Framework 24915.5 Methodology 25015.6 Analysis: The Spectacle of War on TikTok 25215.6.1 Video 1: The Domestic as Theatre 25215.6.1.1 Absence of the Victim 25515.6.2 Video 2: Femininity as Soft Propaganda 25515.6.3 Video 3: Bombing as Cinematic Performance 25815.7 Conclusion: From Spectacle to Moral Numbness 261References 262Index 264