Advanced Dairy Science and Technology

Dr Richard Robinson, UKProfessor Trevor Britz, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

?The most important recent advances ? .The Editors ? have drawn together and impressive and authoritative list of contributing authors. An essential purchase.?Food Industry News "This book provides an excellent account of dairy food product safety and quality, and new technologies to improve the quality, and new technologies to improve the quality and refining of a novel ingredients or to reduce the cost of effluent treatment.It is a most welcome addition to the literature of dairy science and technology because it concentrates on a range of fundamental aspects... technologists across the dairy industry may well find this book helpful. Similarly, students of food or dairy science will welcome access to this text."International Journal of Dairy Technology, Volume 61

• List of Contributors xPreface xi1 Thermapl Processing of Milk 1Peter de Jong1.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Background 21.1.2 Outline 21.2 Heat-induced changes of milk 31.2.1 Heat-induced reactions in milk – bulk reactions 31.2.2 Heat-induced reactions in milk – surface reactions 71.2.3 Reaction engineering approach 71.3 Processes 91.3.1 Equipment 91.3.2 Classification of heating processes 111.3.3 Advanced processes 131.4 Operational considerations and limitations 151.4.1 Flow characteristics 151.4.2 Protein and mineral fouling 161.4.3 Adherence and growth of microorganisms 191.5 Optimization 221.5.1 Introduction 221.5.2 Approach 231.5.3 Case study: pasteurization 251.6 Conclusions and future trends 281.6.1 Longer operating times 281.6.2 Integrating technologies 291.6.3 Model-based control of heating processes 30References 312 Applications of Membrane Separation 35Athanasios Goulas and Alistair S. Grandison2.1 Introduction 362.2 Transport theory of membrane separation processes 372.2.1 Classification of processes 372.2.2 Concentration polarization and fouling 422.2.3 Physical parameters of membrane processes 452.2.4 Diafiltration 462.2.5 Parameters affecting flux and rejection 472.3 Membrane classification, production methods and characterization 482.4 Modules and modes of operation of pressure-driven membrane filtration processes 502.5 Hygiene and cleaning 542.6 Composition and properties of dairy fluids for membrane processing 552.7 Applications of membranes in the dairy industry 572.7.1 Reverse osmosis 572.7.2 Nanofiltration 582.7.3 Ultrafiltration 582.7.4 Microfiltration 612.7.5 Electrodialysis and electro-membrane filtration 622.7.6 Membrane bioreactors 632.7.7 Selective separations of dairy-derived carbohydrates by nanofiltration 692.8 Future developments 70References 713 Hygiene by Design 75J. Ferdie Mostert and Elna M. Buys3.1 Introduction 763.2 Maintaining a clean working environment in dairy plant operations 773.2.1 Introduction 773.2.2 Regulations 773.2.3 Sources of contamination 793.2.4 Waste and effluent management 903.3 Clean room design 913.3.1 Hygienic plant design 913.3.2 Dealing with airborne contamination 923.3.3 Hygienic equipment design 943.4 Clean room operations 963.4.1 Objectives of plant cleaning 963.4.2 Cleaning operations 973.4.3 Sanitization and sterilization 1053.5 Dealing with biofilms 1073.5.1 Biofilm formation 1083.5.2 Detection of biofilms 1093.5.3 Biofilm control/removal 1103.6 Monitoring dairy plant hygiene 1113.6.1 Air quality 1113.6.2 Cleanliness of sanitized surfaces 1123.6.3 Water quality 114References 1144 Automation in the Dairy Industry 121Evaggelos Doxanakis and Asterios Kefalas4.1 Introduction 1224.2 A brief history of automation in the dairy 1224.3 Factors contributing to automation 1244.3.1 Six factors driving automation 1244.4 Benefits of automation 1254.5 Conceptual framework of an automated system 1254.5.1 What is a system? 1254.5.2 Objects 1264.6 Stages in automation in the dairy 1294.6.1 First wave: mechanization 1294.6.2 Second wave: automation 1304.6.3 Third wave: cybernation 1354.7 Lotus integrated safety system – a case study in the dairy industry 1434.7.1 Summary 1464.8 Automation at the enterprise level 1474.8.1 Logistics in dairy: how it helps 1494.8.2 Enterprise Resource Planning 1504.9 Conclusions 152References 1525 Safety and Quality of Dairy Products 153Peter J. Jooste and Lucia E.C.M. Anelich5.1 Introduction 1545.2 Pathogens of special relevance 1555.2.1 Introduction 1555.2.2 Prions 1565.2.3 Viruses 1575.2.4 Rickettsiae 1585.2.5 Protozoa 1585.2.6 Bacteria 1605.3 Chemical hazards 1685.3.1 Mycotoxins 1695.3.2 Antimicrobials 1705.3.3 Allergens 1715.3.4 Industrial and environmental contaminants 1715.3.5 Procedures to minimize risk of feed and milk contamination 1735.4 Physical hazards 1745.5 Traceability of ingredients 176References 1786 Modern Laboratory Practices – Analysis of Dairy Products 183Thomas Bintsis, Apostolos S. Angelidis and Lefki Psoni6.1 Introduction 1846.2 Laboratory quality assurance 1846.2.1 Accreditation of laboratories 1856.2.2 Validation of analytical methods 1876.2.3 Quantifying uncertainty, calibration and traceability 1876.2.4 Quality aspects of microbiological media 1886.2.5 Laboratory safety 1896.3 Sampling 1906.3.1 Sample collection 1916.3.2 Sampling report 1926.4 Chemical analyses 1926.4.1 Fat content 1936.4.2 Protein content 1936.4.3 Total solids 1966.4.4 Ash content 1966.4.5 Lactose content 1966.4.6 Urea determination 1976.4.7 Salt content 1976.4.8 Routine instrumental methods 1976.5 Detection of antibiotic residues 1986.6 Detection of adulteration in dairy products 2036.7 Detection of abnormal milk 2116.8 Microbiological methods 2126.8.1 Standard plate count 2126.8.2 Direct microscopic count 2146.8.3 Direct epifluorescent technique 2146.8.4 Spiral plate counting 2146.8.5 Bactoscan 2156.8.6 Dye reduction tests 2156.8.7 Determination of pyruvate or ammonia 2166.8.8 Contaminating microorganisms 2166.8.9 Thermoduric bacteria 2176.8.10 Coliforms and Enterobacteriaceae 2176.8.11 Enterococcus spp. 2186.8.12 Yeasts and moulds 2196.8.13 Specific pathogenic bacteria 2196.9 Rapid microbiological methods 2216.9.1 Antibody-based methods 2226.9.2 Nucleic-acid-based methods 2276.9.3 Membranes 2326.9.4 Impedance 2326.9.5 Biochemical enzymatic methods and diagnostic kits 2336.9.6 ATP bioluminence 2346.10 Sensory evaluation of dairy products 234Acknowledgements 238References 2387 Dealing with Environmental Issues 262Trevor J. Britz, Corné Lamprecht and Gunnar O. Sigge7.1 Introduction 2637.2 Dairy wastewaters: sources and composition 2637.2.1 General composition of dairy wastewaters 2637.2.2 Milk reception and storage areas 2647.2.3 Heat processing of milk 2657.2.4 Production of evaporated milk products 2657.2.5 Production of powdered dairy products 2657.2.6 Cheese manufacture 2667.2.7 Butter manufacture 2667.2.8 Yoghurt manufacture 2667.3 Treatment options 2677.3.1 Direct discharge to a sewage-treatment works 2677.3.2 Pre-treatment options 2687.3.3 Aerobic biological systems 2717.3.4 Anaerobic biological systems 2807.3.5 Chemical systems 2867.4 Conclusions 287References 288Index 294