Modern China

Bruce A. Elleman is William V. Pratt Professor of International History, U.S. Naval War College. He is the author of many books, including Diplomacy and Deception: The Secret History of Sino-Soviet Diplomatic Relations, 1917–1927; Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989; Wilson and China: A Revised History of the Shandong Question; Moscow and the Emergence of Communist Power in China, 1925–30: The Nanchang Uprising and the Birth of the Red Army; High Sea’s Buffer: The Taiwan Patrol Force, 1950–1979; Taiwan Straits: Crisis in Asia and the Role of the U.S. Navy; International Competition in China, 1899–1991: The Rise, Fall, and Restoration of the Open Door Policy; and China’s Naval Operations in the South China Sea: Evaluating Legal, Strategic and Military Factors.S. C. M. Paine is William S. Sims Professor of History and Grand Strategy in the Strategy and Policy Department, U.S. Naval War College. She is the author of Imperial Rivals: China, Russia and TheirDisputed Frontiers, winner of the Jelavich Book Prize; The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power and Primacy; The Wars for Asia, 1911-1949, winner of the Leopold Prize + PROSE Award for European & World History; and The Japanese Empire: Grand Strategy from the Meiji Restoration to the Pacific War.

This textbook, by two outstanding scholars of China, presents an authoritative overview of Chinese history from 1644, the beginning of China's last dynasty, until the present day. The authors' knowledge of China's neighboring countries enables them to provide a sensitive introduction to the region’s culture. They combine a broad survey with a careful examination of important primary sources. The authors are known not only for their general historical sweep but also for their special knowledge as careful military historians.

• List of Maps List of Features List of Tables List of Figures List of Photographs Preface AcknowledgmentsTechnical Note Introduction: A Cultural Framework for Understanding China Top-Down Characteristics: Confucianism, Militarism, Legalism, and Sinification Radial Characteristics: Sinocentrism, Barbarian Management, and the Provincial System Bottom-Up Characteristics: Daoism, Buddhism, and Poetry Cyclical Elements: Yin and Yang, the Dynastic Cycle, and Historical Continuity Retrospective Elements: Fate and the Sources of Knowledge Conclusions Notes Bibliography PART I: THE CREATION AND MATURATION OF AN EMPIRE, 1644–1842 1 The Creation of the Qing Dynasty The Ming Dynasty The Qing Conquest of Ming China: Nurgaci and His Successors Grafting the Manchus onto Han China under the Shunzhi Emperor Territorial Consolidation under the Kangxi EmperorInstitutional Consolidation under the Yongzheng Emperor Conclusions Notes Bibliography 2 The Maximization of Empire under the Qianlong Emperor The Conquest of the Zunghar Mongols The Conquest of the Tarim Basin and Tibet Qing Imperial Administration: The Tributary System Domestic Administration: Central and Local Government The Economy of an Empire: Agriculture, Commerce, and Taxation Conclusions Notes Bibliography 3 Chinese Society at the Zenith of the Qing Dynasty Manchu and Han Society The Four Social Groups: Scholars, Peasants, Artisans, and Merchants The Legal System Confucianism as an IdeologyShamanism, Confucianism, and Buddhism as Instruments of Manchu RuleConclusions Notes Bibliography 4 The Foundations of KnowledgeFidelity to the Past The Confucian Classics Thinking by Historical Analogy Understanding the Natural World The Examination System Conclusions Notes Bibliography 5 The Arrival of the West Early Explorers The Maritime Advance: Portugal, Spain, Holland, and England The Continental Advance: Russia The Legal and Religious Sources of Cultural Conflict The Technological Revolution Conclusions Notes Bibliography 6 Systemic Crisis and Dynastic Decline Government Corruption and Manchu Decadence Population Growth, Ethnic Tensions, and the Miao Revolt The White Lotus Rebellion and the Eight Trigrams Revolt Imperial Overextension Qing Attempts to Restore Governmental Efficacy Conclusions Notes Bibliography 7 Expanding Commercial Relations with the West The Tea Trade and the Silver Inflow The Opium Trade and the Silver Outflow The British Rejection of Sinification Chinese Strategy and the First Opium War The Treaty of Nanjing: Treaty Ports, Tariffs, and North-South Tensions Conclusions Notes Bibliography PART II: DYNASTIC DECLINE AND COLLAPSE, 1842–1911 8 Civil War and Foreign Intervention North-South Tensions and the Origins of the Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Movement The Taiping Capital in Nanjing The Arrow War Manchu-Western Cooperation to Destroy the Taipings Conclusions Notes Bibliography 9 Quelling Domestic Rebellions The Rise of the Empress Dowager Cixi The Nian Rebellion (1851–68) The Panthay Rebellion (1855–73) The Donggan Rebellion (1862–73) The Muslim Rebellion in Xinjiang (1862–78) Conclusions Notes Bibliography 10 The Self-Strengthening Movement and Central Government Reforms Military Reform: Xiang and Huai Armies, Beiyang and Nanyang Navies Financial Reform: The Imperial Maritime Customs Service Foreign Policy Reform: The Zongli Yamen Educational Reform: China’s First Embassy and Western Learning Governmental Restoration: Confucian Rectification Conclusions Notes Bibliography 11 Attacks on Chinese Sovereignty The Burlingame Mission and the Alcock Convention The Tianjin Massacre (1870) and the Margary Affair (1875) Japan and Taiwan (1871–74) Russia and Xinjiang (1871–81) France and Vietnam (1883–85) Conclusions Notes Bibliography 12 The First Sino-Japanese War The Korean Crisis The Hostilities The Settlement The Triple Intervention The Scramble for Concessions Conclusions Notes Bibliography 13 The Attempt to Expel the Foreigners: The Boxer Uprising The Hundred Days’ Reform The Origins of the Boxer Movement The Boxer Uprising The Boxer Protocol and the Economic Impact of the Indemnities The Aftermath: The Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) Conclusions Notes Bibliography 14 The 1911 Revolution The Reform Program of the Empress Dowager CixiHan Revolutionaries: Sun Yat-sen’s Anti-Manchu Movement The Rights Recovery Movement The New Army and the Wuchang Rebellion The Collapse of the Qing Dynasty Conclusions Notes Bibliography PART III: THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD, 1912–49 15 The Founding of the Republic of China The Republic under Yuan Shikai Relations with Russia, Japan, and Britain The Founding of the Nationalist Party North China Warlord Intrigues The Republic of China Enters the First World War Conclusions Notes Bibliography 16 Versailles and Its Aftermath Political Ferment and New Ideas The Paris Peace Conference Examines the Shandong Question The Shandong Controversy The Beijing Government’s Reaction to the Compromise The Long-Term Impact of the Treaty of Versailles Conclusions Notes Bibliography 17 New Intellectual Currents The New Culture Movement The May Fourth Movement The Karakhan Manifesto and the Comintern The Founding of the Chinese Communist Party The Civil Wars in North China Conclusions Notes Bibliography 18 The Nationalist-Communist United Front South China Diplomacy: The Origins of the First United Front The Reorganization of the Nationalist Party North China Diplomacy: Beijing and Manchurian Warlords The Rise of Chiang Kai-shek and the Northern ExpeditionThe Beginning of the Nationalist-Communist Civil War Conclusions Notes Bibliography 19 The Nanjing Decade Elimination of the Unequal Treaties with the Western Powers The Russo-Japanese Rivalry over ManchuriaThe Military Side of Nation Building: Uprisings and Encirclement Campaigns The Civil Side of Nation Building: Nationalist and Communist IdeologyThe Xi’an Incident and the Second United Front Conclusions Notes Bibliography 20 The Second Sino-Japanese WarGreat Power Rivalries over China The Regional War and the Civil War The Global War Soviet Efforts to Expand Their Sphere of Influence Impact on the Chinese Population Conclusions Notes Bibliography 21 The Civil War: Nationalists versus Communists Renewal of the Civil War U.S. Diplomatic Intervention Soviet Intervention The Nationalist Economic Implosion The Communist Victory Conclusions Notes Bibliography PART IV: CHINA AND TAIWAN IN THE POSTWAR ERA 22 The Communist Victory The Formation of the People’s Republic of China Land Reform and Agrarian Policies The Nationalization of Industry and Commerce Diplomatic Isolation and the Sino-Soviet Alliance Land Reform on Taiwan ConclusionsNote Bibliography 23 The Korean War The Outbreak of the Korean War The Chinese Decision to Intervene The Soviet War Protraction Strategy War Termination The Domestic Consequences of the War Conclusions Notes Bibliography 24 Mao’s Quest for World Leadership The Hundred Flowers Campaign The Great Leap Forward The Great Famine (1958–62) The Sino-Soviet Split The Sino-Indian War of 1962Conclusions NotesBibliography 25 The Cultural Revolution Mao’s Weakened Position The Phases of the Cultural RevolutionThe PLA and the Restoration of Order The 1969 Sino-Soviet Border Conflict Sino-American Rapprochement Conclusions Notes Bibliography 26 The Deng Xiaoping Restoration The Impending Succession, the Fall of Lin Biao, and the Death of MaoThe Rise to Power of Deng Xiaoping The Taiwanese Economic Miracle Deng Xiaoping’s Agricultural Reforms Deng Xiaoping’s Industrial Reforms Conclusions Notes Bibliography 27 From Tiananmen to Xi Jinping The Dissolution of the Soviet Union Tiananmen Demonstrations and Massacre Governance without a Preeminent Leader Rising Nationalism Xi Jinping Leader for Life Conclusions Notes Bibliography 28 The Mandate of HeavenPopulation and Prosperity Environmental Challenges Energy and Industrial Growth Democracy in Taiwan The Two-China Problem Conclusions Notes Bibliography Conclusion: China in Transition Top-Down Characteristics: Civil-Military-Ideological Underpinnings of Power Radial Characteristics: Relations with the Outside Bottom-Up Characteristics: Education, Globalization, and Han Nationalism Cyclical Elements: The End of the Dynastic Cycle? Retrospective Elements: Fatalism or Choice? Final Words Notes Bibliography Appendix A: Geographical Names by Transliteration System Appendix B: Pinyin–Wade-Giles Conversion Table Teaching ReferencesGeneralHistorical Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Biographical Information Supplemental Readings Movies Websites Photo Credits Name Index Subject Index About the Authors