Thematic Encyclopedia of Regional Science

Edited by Peter Nijkamp, School of Public Policy and Management, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China and Faculty of Economics, Rijeka University, Rijeka, Croatia, Karima Kourtit, Faculty of Management, Open University of the Netherlands, Kingsley E. Haynes, Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, USA and Zeynep Elburz, Faculty of Architecture, City and Regional Planning Department, Izmir Institute of Technology, Türkiye

‘In recent decades Regional Science has shown amazing dynamism all over the world. It has turned into a great collection of place-based analytical knowledge on the functioning of cities and regions. This Encyclopedia is the first of its kind synthesizing the multi-faceted body of knowledge on the economic and social geography of our world in a systematic and thematic way.’

• Words of thanks xixxxPART A SPACE AND TIMESECTION I LOCATIONA.I.1Industrial location 3Daniel SheferA.I.2Location of people 5Elizelle Juanee CilliersA.I.3Facility location 6Adeline HeitzA.I.4Agglomeration economies 8Gabriela Carmen PascariuA.I.5Industrial clusters 10Christian KetelsA.I.6Spatial systems 12Bogdan-Constantin IbanescuA.I.7Intra-city population dynamics 14Kingsley E. HaynesSECTION II ALLOCATIONA.II.1Spatial interdependencies 17Umut Türk and John ÖsthA.II.2Spatial assignment 19Kingsley E. HaynesA.II.3FDI and regional development 21Laura ResminiA.II.4Spatial equilibrium 23Kingsley E. HaynesA.II.5Globalization 25Yuri MansuryA.II.6Global cluster networks 27Pengfei Li and Harald BatheltA.II.7Spatial allocation of firms 29Cintya Lanchimba and JuanPablo Díaz-SánchezSECTION III LAND USEA.III.1Urban economics 32Juan Carlos LopezA.III.2Land rent 34Tomaz Ponce DentinhoA.III.3Location and land use 36John F. McDonaldA.III.4Monocentricity andpolycentricity 38Zeynep ElburzA.III.5Peri-urbanity and rurality 40Abdul ShabanA.III.6Spatial access barriers 43Thomas Carl KeeneA.III.7Agriculture 45Mikaël AkimowiczSECTION IV REGIONSA.IV.1Definitions and typology 48Fernando Rubiera-MorollónA.IV.2Regional borders 50Kathrine RichardsonA.IV.3Regional disparities 52Daniel FelsensteinA.IV.4Regional dynamics andresilience 54Hugo Pinto and Luiz VianaA.IV.5Regions as active spaces 56Marina S. van GeenhuizenA.IV.6Territorial capital 58Roberta CapelloA.IV.7Regions as networks 60Folke SnickarsSECTION V CITIESA.V.1Definition and delineation ofcities 63Celine RozenblatA.V.2City size 66Hasan Engin DuranA.V.3Suburbanisation 68Tigran HaasA.V.4Metropolitan areas 70Bogdana Neamtu and Calin E. HinteaA.V.5Peri-urban areas 72Cristina Lincaru, AdrianaGrigorescu and SperanțaCamelia PîrciogA.V.6Systems of cities 74Davide PonziniA.V.7Cities and borrowed size 76Désirée NilssonSECTION VI ENVIRONMENTAND RESOURCESA.VI.1Theory of externalities 79Amitrajeet A. BatabyalA.VI.2Environmental quality 81Irina Di RuoccoA.VI.3Sustainability 83Vasiliki Delitheou andEvanthia MichalakiA.VI.4Livability 85Steffen LehmannA.VI.5Climate change 87Sebastien BourdinA.VI.6Ecological and historicallandscapes 89Mark ScottA.VI.7Rural development 91Menelaos GkartziosSECTION VII TECHNOLOGYAND SPACEA.VII.1Digitalization, cities and regions 94Janet E. KohlhaseA.VII.2Research and development 96Hiroyuki Shibusawa and Mingji CuA.VII.3Digital technology 98Varadharajan SridharA.VII.4Spatial proximity andtechnology 100Andre TorreA.VII.5Industrial districts 102Fabio Sforzi and RafaelBoix-DomènechA.VII.6Networks and technologyadoption 104Boyeong Park and Donghwan AnA.VII.7Culture and industrialdevelopment 106David Emanuel AnderssonPART B ACTORS AND SOCIETYSECTION I INDIVIDUALSAND HOUSEHOLDSB.I.1Demography and regionalscience 110Leonardus J.G. Van Wissenand Veronique SchutjensB.I.2Commuting 112Kala Seetharam SridharB.I.3Migration 114K. Bruce NewboldB.I.4Creativity 116Sorin MaziluB.I.5Poverty 118David C. FolchB.I.6Urban poverty and socialinequality 120Robert C. KloostermanB.I.7Cultural diversity 122Saskia Sassen and Karima KourtitSECTION II FIRMS ANDENTREPRENEURSB.II.1New firm formation 125Zoltan AcsB.II.2Entrepreneurs as businessinnovators 127Rolf SternbergB.II.3Locational motives 129Abraham SongB.II.4Relocation 131Valentina Giannini andDonato IacobucciB.II.5Spatial entrepreneurialcompetition 133Stefano ColomboB.II.6Industrial linkages 135Antonella NoccoB.II.7Entrepreneurial ecosystems 137Christina Theodoraki andDavid B. AudretschSECTION III INCOME ANDDISTRIBUTIONB.III.1Income generation 140David Willis and David W. HughesB.III.2Income expenditures 142Konstantinos Eleftheriou andKonstantinos ChristopoulosB.III.3Income gaps 144Chen SharonyB.III.4Spatial income disparities 146Haifeng QianB.III.5Urban inequality 148Clémentine Cottineau andDenise PumainB.III.6Socio-economic segmentation 150Martijn J. SmitB.III.7Income distribution indeveloping countries 152Budy P. ResosudarmoSECTION IV ECONOMICGROWTH AND REGIONALDEVELOPMENTB.IV.1Spatial-economic growththeory and policy 155Fabio MazzolaB.IV.2Endogenous regional growth 158Robert J. StimsonB.IV.3Regional competition 160Miguel A. MárquezB.IV.4Convergence theory 162Juan R. Cuadrado-RouraB.IV.5New Economic Geography 165Antonella NoccoB.IV.6Cumulative causation 167Sumana BandyopadhyayB.IV.7Urban agglomeration dynamics 169Patrícia C. MeloSECTION V SPATIAL WELL-BEINGB.V.1Well-being 172Sebastien BourdinB.V.2Quality of life 174Eva PsathaB.V.3Well-being and the city 177Philip S. MorrisonB.V.4Environmental quality andsafety 179Miruna Mazurencu-Marinescu PeleB.V.5Spatial health 181Marina S. van GeenhuizenB.V.6Public amenities 183Chiara Garau and Pierre FrankhauserB.V.7Urban-rural happiness paradox 185Marloes M. Hoogerbruggeand Martijn J. BurgerSECTION VI SPATIAL INNOVATIONB.VI.1Measurement of regionalinnovation 188Fernando Bruna and JuanFernández-SastreB.VI.2Knowledge spillovers 190Oto HudecB.VI.3The role of universities 192Arda Tuncer and Ferhan GeziciB.VI.4Intelligent cities 194Nicos Komninos and Anastasia PanoriB.VI.5Territorial innovation systems 197Anastasia Panori and Nicos KomninosB.VI.6Absorption capacity 199Rafael Garduño-RiveraB.VI.7Creative class 201Richard FloridaPART C GOODS AND MARKETSSECTION I HOUSING MARKETSC.I.1Urban sprawl 206Fernando Rubiera-MorollónC.I.2Supply 208Carlos Almeida Marques andCisbélia Sousa CevadinhaC.I.3Affordable housing and socialpolicy 210Martin GranderC.I.4Externalities and housingmarket policy 212John Edwin AndersonC.I.5Hedonic price formation 214Charles Ka Yui LeungC.I.6Migration and housing markets 216Carlos Garriga, AaronHedlund and Ping WangC.I.7Public space and house prices 218David M. BrasingtonSECTION II SPATIAL LABOURMARKETSC.II.1Labour market segmentation 221Peter Gladoić HåkanssonC.II.2The wage curve 223Uwe Blien and Stephan BrunowC.II.3Employment subcenters inmetropolitan areas 225John F. McDonaldC.II.4Creative class and space 227Alina M. Schoenberg andRebecca SchwarzC.II.5Migration and labor markets 230Mark Brown and Bruce NewboldC.II.6Ageing and labour marketparticipation 232Brian H.S. KimC.II.7Regional labour market supplyand demand 234Ana Maria Bonomi BarufiSECTION III COMMODITY MARKETSC.III.1Distance factors 237Fernando Rubiera-MorollónC.III.2Inequality in market access 239Julio Martinez-Galaraggaand Daniel A. Tirado-FabregatC.III.3Value chains 241Joao-Pedro FerreiraC.III.4Logistics 243Kevin O’ConnorC.III.5Advanced producer services 245Rafael Boix-Domènech andFabio SforziC.III.6Spatial commodity flows 247Geoffrey J.D. HewingsC.III.7Industry and I-O analysis 249Kingsley E. HaynesSECTION IV PUBLIC FACILITIESC.IV.1Public goods 252Philip E. GravesC.IV.2Concentration vs.deconcentration 254Pedro Herrera-CatalánC.IV.3Spatial consumer markets 256Bogdan-Constantin IbanescuC.IV.4Geographic specialisation 258Alexandru BănicăC.IV.5Social diversity 260Daniela-Luminita ConstantinC.IV.6Distribution and financingaspects 262Mihaela ClincuC.IV.7Local amenities and spatialhousehold choices 264Steven G. Craig and Hoanh LeSECTION V BUILTENVIRONMENT AND PLANNINGC.V.1The real estate market 267Charles Ka Yui LeungC.V.2Spatial land use competition 269Dani Broitman and Danny CzamanskiC.V.3Density and livability 271Carlos Moreno, DidierChabaud and Catherine GallC.V.4Urban landscapes 274Luigi Fusco Girard,Francesca Nocca and Martina BosoneC.V.5Geodesign 277Carl Steinitz and Karima KourtitC.V.6Urban real estate 279Charles Ka Yui LeungC.V.7Urban heat islands and land-useplanning 281Jean-Michel GuldmannSECTION VI RESOURCESAND ENERGYC.VI.1Resource supply and demand 284Shriya RangarajanC.VI.2Renewable energy 286Abdellatif KhattabiC.VI.3Resource competition 288Oudom Hean and Parker JabasC.VI.4Local environmental quality 290Yoshiro HiganoC.VI.5Local climate adaptation 292Peter Nijkamp and Karima KourtitC.VI.6Natural resources and the region 296Kingsley E. HaynesC.VI.7Green and blue areas 299Soomi LeePART D SERVICES AND ECONOMYSECTION I KNOWLEDGEAND INFORMATIOND.I.1Knowledge and data analytics 303Lukas BehrendD.I.2Knowledge creation 305Robert LauriniD.I.3Knowledge dissemination andaccess 307Maryam GhorbankhaniD.I.4Triple and quadruple helixviews 309Marina S. van GeenhuizenD.I.5Smart cities 311Andrea Caragliu and Chiara F. Del BoD.I.6Learning regions 313Alina Irina PopescuD.I.7Responsible research andinnovation 315Pavlos Kilintzis and Elpida SamaraSECTION II DIGITALTECHNOLOGY AND DATAD.II.1Digital technology effects 318Camilla LenziD.II.2Data and modelling 320Katarzyna KopczewskaD.II.3Spatial data 322Ling Wu and Xinyue YeD.II.4Local data warehouses 324Ling Wu, Xinyue Ye and Rangan FengD.II.5Big data 326Laurie A. SchintlerD.II.6Blockchain systems 328Ana BalanD.II.7Local data analysis andmanagement 331Rob KitchinSECTION III SERVICES ANDDEVELOPMENTD.III.1Producer services 334Michiel van MeeterenD.III.2Industrial dynamics in space 337Alexandra Tsvetkova andJean-Claude ThillD.III.3The death of distance 339Jacques PootD.III.4Spatial competition in location 341Gordon F. MulliganD.III.5Spatial competition andinnovation 343Lu Chen and Ting ZhangD.III.6Regional industrial leadership 345Terry ClowerD.III.7Socioeconomic opportunities 347Alexandra SanduSECTION IV PUBLIC SERVICESD.IV.1Culture and regionaldevelopment 350Alexander LehnerD.IV.2Culture and language 352Rosella NicoliniD.IV.3The experience economy 354Jaewon LimD.IV.4Spatial access to services 356Mert Kompil and ChrisJacobs-CrisioniD.IV.5Public health and space 359Hanxue WeiD.IV.6Human health 361Konstantinos Christopoulosand Konstantinos EleftheriouD.IV.7Spatial well-being and health 363Carolina Guevara RoseroSECTION V DIVERSITY ANDCULTURED.V.1Urban ethnic and migrantconcentration 366Cem ÖzgüzelD.V.2Advocacy, innovation andminority entrepreneurs 368Helen Lawton SmithD.V.3Entrepreneurship policy andgender 370Kehinde Ogunjemilusi,Colette Henry, Brian Boydand Kate JohnstonD.V.4Transport equity 373Isabel Cunha and Louafi BouzouinaD.V.5Talent and cities 375Richard Florida andCharlotta MellanderD.V.6Urban cultural plurality 377Luigi Fusco GirardD.V.7Cultural tourism 380Martina Bosone and AntoniaGravagnuoloPART E TRANSPORT ANDINTERACTIONSSECTION I TRANSPORTE.I.1Space-time geography 385John Östh and Umut TürkE.I.2Urban transport networks andsystems 389Balázs LengyelE.I.3Networks and graphs 391Renata Żochowska and PiotrSoczówkaE.I.4Roads 393Dimitrios TsiotasE.I.5Railways 395Genevieve Giuilano andAhsan Habib JoyE.I.6Public transport 397Itzhak BenensonE.I.7Bicycling 399Kees MaatSECTION II TRADEE.II.1Spatial borders 402Neil ReidE.II.2Trade barriers 404Eduardo A. HaddadE.II.3Spatial competition 407Daniel A. GriffithE.II.4Foreign Direct Investment(FDI) 409Zoltán GálE.II.5Spatial market areas 412Edward CoulsonE.II.6Regional trade and complexlogistics 417Cynthia Sénquiz-DíazE.II.7Regional value chains 419Pui-Hang WongSECTION III TRAFFICE.III.1The mobile society 422Francesca Torrieri and Marco RossittiE.III.2Spatial choices: destination,route, mode 424Itzhak BenensonE.III.3Distance effects 426Jason HawkinsE.III.4Inequality in access 428David Duran-Rodas andBenjamin BüttnerE.III.5Traffic safety 431Alexander LehnerE.III.6Bike sharing 434Valeria BernandoE.III.7Ride-hailing and urbancongestion 436Xavier FagedaSECTION IV COMMUTINGE.IV.1Living and working 439Thomas de GraaffE.IV.2Labour markets, housingmarkets and transport 441Barbara Schwengler and Per KroppE.IV.3Transport and environment 443Bert van WeeE.IV.4Segmented spatial labor markets 447Timothy R. WojanE.IV.5Spatial networks 449Kevin CreditE.IV.6Models for commuting behavior 452Luca ZampariniSECTION V MOBILITYE.V.1Spatial choices: modes,motives, destinations 455Luca ZampariniE.V.2Travel demand modelling 457Yantao Huang and Kara KockelmanE.V.3Residential mobility patterns 460William A.V. ClarkE.V.4Rising city size and mobility 462Peter RogersonE.V.5Leisure mobility 464Marina TogerE.V.6Urban mobility andenvironment 466Kostas Bithas and Antonis RovolisSECTION VI TOURISME.VI.1Tourism and recreation 469Luiz Carlos de SantanaRibeiro and Gervásio Ferreirados SantosE.V1.2Typology of tourism 471Mauro FerranteE.V1.3Benefits of tourism 473Eva PsathaE.V1.4Local identity and tourism 475Jingjing Liu and Yahui SuE.V1.5Crowding 477Bart NeutsE.V1.6Tourism and aviation 479Juan Carlos MartínE.VI.7Mode and destination choice intourism 481Dimitrios Buhalis, KarimaKourtit and Vanessa G.B.GowreesunkarPART F GOVERNANCE AND POLICYSECTION I REGIONAL POLICYF.I.1Policy principles 491Ugo FratesiF.I.2Place-based or people-based 493Sebastien BourdinF.I.3Policy incentives 495Terance RephannF.I.4Public investments 497Jolta KacaniF.I.5Policy evaluation 499Paolo Di CaroF.I.6Fiscal equalization 501Marie Breuille and Julie Le GalloF.I.7Regional policy tools 503Paul Snow (Ling Xue)SECTION II SPATIAL PLANNINGF.II.1Planning theory 506Daniel GallandF.II.2Public spaces 509Tigran HaasF.II.3Information and planning 511Zhixuan Li and Becky P.Y. LooF.II.4Regional information systems 513Robert LauriniF.II.5Spatial planning formegaregions 515Ming ZhangF.II.6Urbanization in the developingworld 517Kyle FarrellF.II.7Smart planning tools 519Koray Velibeyoğlu and Pelin ÖzdenSECTION III INSTITUTIONSF.III.1Governance and society 522Ramona TiganasuF.III.2Non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) 524Cynthia Sénquiz-DíazF.III.3Sustainable Development Goal(SDG) principles 526Magnus AnderssonF.III.4Financial aspects of urbansustainability 528Adriana Kocornik-Mina andRobin KingF.III.5Social and institutionalinnovation 530Serdar TürkeliF.III.6Institutions and city-regionalplanning 532Raine MäntysaloF.III.7Nature in regional governance 534Mikaël Akimowicz, CharlineCollard and Céline DomengieSECTION IV PUBLIC PARTICIPATIONF.IV.1Citizen involvement 537Irina Di RuoccoF.IV.2Public participation: successand failure 539Elizelle Juanee CilliersF.IV.3Citizen science 541Marina S. van GeenhuizenF.IV.4Participatory geo-design 543Eduardo Simao Da Graca DiasF.IV.5Local public cooperation 545Marie Breuille and Julie Le GalloF.IV.6Spatial competences 547Teresa de NoronhaF.IV.7Stakeholders in local publicparticipation 549Sarah LowSECTION V SOCIAL COHESIONF.V.1Inclusive spatial development 552Fjollë CakaF.V.2Social capital 554Hans Westlund and Kamila BorsekovaF.V.3Social policy 556Adam PolkoF.V.4Governance and society 558Teresa de NoronhaF.V.5Discontent and violentbehaviour 561Daria DentiF.V.6Entrepreneurial diversity andregional development potential 563Michael FritschF.V.7Cultural-ethnic diversity 565Kingsley E. HaynesSECTION VI GREEN POLICYF.VI.1Regional environmental capital 568Alexandru BănicăF.VI.2Quality of life 570Takahiro YoshidaF.VI.3The climate commandment 572Fjollë CakaF.VI.4Energy use and transition 574Sol Maria Halleck VegaF.VI.5Circular economy 576Sebastien BourdinF.VI.6Green spaces 578Elizelle Juanee CilliersF.VI.7Valuation of urban ecosystemservices 580Yujing Ma, Jamie M. Chenand Xudong RaoSECTION VII PLACE-BASED POLICYF.VII.1Spatial differentiation 584Elena Lasarte-Navamuel andAlberto Diaz-DapenaF.VII.2Place-based approaches 587Elizabeth Redmond and JohnI. CarruthersF.VII.3Rural-urban dichotomy 589Menelaos GkartziosF.VII.4Disaster resilience 591Alexandru BănicăF.VII.5Limitations of spatial policy 593Jean-Michel GuldmannF.VII.6Urban and regional modelling 595Tschangho John KimF.VII.7Geoscience and regional science 598Stefan de Graaf and Henk ScholtenPART G METHODS ANDTECHNIQUESSECTION I REGIONALSCIENCE TOOLSG.I.1Economic base models 602K. Mert CubukcuG.I.2Shift-and-share analysis 604Miguel A. MárquezG.I.3Spatial I-O analysis 606Jan OosterhavenG.I.4Spatial interaction models 608Aura ReggianiG.I.5Spatial search models 610A. Stewart FotheringhamG.I.6Spatial dynamic equilibriumanalysis 612Terry L. FrieszG.I.7Regional CGE models 614Euijune KimSECTION II PLANNING ANDPROJECTION METHODSG.II.1SWOT analysis 618Eva PsathaG.II.2Cost-benefit and costeffectiveness analysis 621Carolina SerpieriG.II.3Multicriteria analysis 623Sumeeta SrinivasanG.II.4Data envelopment analysis 625Soushi Suzuki and Peter NijkampG.II.5Urban self-organization andsimulation 628Dani Broitman and Danny CzamanskiG.II.6Morphological assessment 630Sergio Porta and Vitor OliveiraG.II.7Structural equation modeling 634Bart NeutsSECTION III SOCIETY ANDGEOGRAPHYG.III.1Consultation methods 637Jiwon BaikG.III.2Environmental impact analysis 639Irina Di RuoccoG.III.3Scenario analysis 641Žiga MalekG.III.4Hedonic price models 644Coro ChascoG.III.5Agent-based models 646Ouassim ManoutG.III.6Analysis of urban form 649Claudia van der Laag Yamuand Işın Can TraunmüllerG.III.7Spatial trends in regionalscience 651Fernando BrunaSECTION IV SPATIAL DYNAMICSG.IV.1Spatial input-output and CGEmodeling 655Geoffrey J.D. HewingsG.IV.2Spatial aspects of disasters 658Giulio Breglia and Marco ModicaG.IV.3Resilience analysis 660Alessandra Faggian andCarlo CaporaliG.IV.4Fractal geometry and scaling 663Michael BattyG.IV.5Bayesian spatial-temporalmodels 666Gede Nyoman Mindra Jayaand Henk FolmerG.IV.6Machine learning and AI 668Güney Celbis and Pui-Hang WongG.IV.7Machine learning andagglomerations 670Adipandang Yudono, RadenChrisna, Trie Hadi Permanaand Firman AfriantoG.IV.8System dynamics on smarttechnologies 673Elpida Samara, PavlosKilintzis and Paraskevi KostiSECTION V SPATIAL ECONOMETRICSG.V.1Spatial autocorrelation analysis 676François BavaudG.V.2Spatial weight matrix 680François BavaudG.V.3Durbin and Geary models 683Sumeeta SrinivasanG.V.4Spatial regression models 685Gianfranco PirasG.V.5Spatial VAR models 687Daniel FelsensteinG.V.6Spatial dependence modeling 690J. Paul ElhorstG.V.7Nonlinear spatial econometricmodels 692Konstantinos Christopoulosand Konstantinos EleftheriouSECTION VI SPATIAL STATISTICSG.VI.1Exploratory spatial data analysis 695Adriana Grigorescu, SperanțaCamelia Pîrciog and Cristina LincaruG.VI.2Geographic InformationSystem (GIS) methodology 697Eric VazG.VI.3Cluster analysis 699Speranța Camelia Pîrciog,Cristina Lincaru and AdrianaGrigorescuG.VI.4Spatial scales (MAUP) 702David ManleyG.VI.5Stochastic kernels 704Angelos Liontakis andChristos T. PapadasG.VI.6Spatial microsimulation 707Terance RephannG.VI.7Self-organising processes andmapping (SOM) 709Lidia DiappiG.VI.8Measures of concentration 712Francois BavaudG.VI.9Wasserstein distance inregional science 716Ting Zhang and Lu Chen