Introduction to Crystal Growth and Characterization

Professor Emeritus Klaus-Werner Benz was Head of the Crystallographic Institute of the University of Freiburg, Germany, and Director at the Freiburg Materials Research Center until September 2003. From 1999 on he served as Vice-President of the University of Freiburg for Communication Technologies and Science Transfer. He is a member of the International Academy of Astronautics and has authored more than 300 publications in the field of material science, crystal growth and characterization, semiconductor technology and fluid dynamics. Wolfgang Neumann is Professor of Crystallography at the Institute of Physics of the Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany. He studied mineralogy in Berlin and obtained his Ph.D. and Habilitation degrees in Applied Physics from the Martin Luther University in Halle-Wittenberg. Since 1997, he is Editor-in-Chief of Crystal Research and Technology. He became Director of the International Centre of Advanced Materials and Electron Microscopy in 2001 and serves as Chairman of the German Society for Crystallography since 2006. His research interests focus on crystallography, materials science and electron microscopy. He performs structure investigations of nanostructured materials by means of analytical high-resolution electron microscopy. Wolfgang Neumann (Editor-in-Chief) and Klaus W. Benz (Consulting Editor) have collaborated for many years as main scientific editors of the materials science journal "Crystal Research and Technology".

“This book is an excellent introduction to the field of crystal growth and characterization.”  (MRS Bulletin, 1 August 2015)

• Preface ixAcknowledgments xiii1 Fundamentals of Crystalline Materials 11.1 Crystalline State 11.2 Fundamentals of Geometrical Crystallography 121.2.1 Crystal Lattices 121.2.2 Crystal Axes Systems, Crystal Systems, and Crystal Families 141.2.3 Crystal Faces and Zones 151.2.4 Indexing in the Hexagonal Crystal Family 241.3 Morphological Symmetry of Crystals 251.3.1 Crystallographic Point Groups 401.3.2 Some Basic Facts of Group Theory 521.4 Structural Symmetry 601.4.1 Crystal Lattices, Motifs, and Crystal Structures 601.4.1.1 Bravais Lattices 611.4.1.2 The Reciprocal Lattice 621.4.1.3 Lattice Transformations 681.4.2 Crystallographic Space Groups 711.4.2.1 General Remarks 721.4.2.2 The International Tables for Crystallography – The Reference Book for the Representation of Space Group Symmetries 761.4.2.3 Mathematical Description of the Space Group Symmetry 931.4.3 Generalized Crystallographic Symmetry 1011.5 Crystal Structures 1041.5.1 Sphere Packings 1081.5.2 Selected Examples of Inorganic Structure Types 1121.5.2.1 Polymorphism and Polytypism 1241.5.3 Selected Examples of Molecular Crystals 1261.5.4 Symmetry Relations between Crystal Structures 1451.6 Crystallographic Databases and Crystallographic Computer Programs 152Appendix: Supplementary Material S1 Special Crystal Forms of Cubic Crystal Classes 159References 1642 Basics of Growth Mechanism and Solidification 1712.1 Nucleation Processes 1712.1.1 Homogeneous Nucleation 1752.1.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation 1772.1.3 Metastable Zone Regime 1792.1.4 Equilibrium Shape of Crystals 1802.2 Kinetic Processes and Growth Mechanism 1822.2.1 Molecular Kinetic Theory of Crystal Growth 1832.2.2 Interfaces and Roughening of Surfaces 1852.2.3 Vapor–Liquid–Solid (VLS) Mechanism 1892.2.4 Crystal Growth from Ambient Phases on Rough Surfaces: Vapor Phase, Solution, and Melt Media 1902.2.5 Crystal Growth on Flat Surfaces 1932.3 Phase Diagrams and Principles of Segregation 1952.3.1 Phase Diagrams with a Continuous Miscibility in the Solid and Liquid Phases 1962.3.2 Segregation and Segregation Coefficients 2012.3.3 Constitutional Supercooling and Morphological Stability 2122.4 Principles of Flow Regimes in Growth Melts 2142.4.1 Buoyancy Convection 2152.4.2 Marangoni Convection 216References 2183 Growth Techniques in Correlation with Related Growth Mechanism 2213.1 Overview on Main Growth Techniques 2213.2 Principles of Melt Growth Techniques 2243.2.1 The Czochralski Crystal Growth Process 2243.2.2 Growth Method after Bridgman 2343.2.3 The Float Zone Crystal Growth Process 2443.2.4 Bulk Crystal Growth from Metallic Solutions 2533.2.4.1 Traveling Solvent Method (TSM) 2533.2.4.2 Traveling Heater Method (THM) 2553.2.4.3 The Solute, Synthesis, Diffusion Method (SSD) 2593.3 Bulk Crystal Growth of II–VI Compounds from the Vapor 2603.3.1 Crystal Growth of CdTe by a Sublimation Traveling Heater Method, STHM, in Closed Ampoules 2623.3.2 Crystal Growth of CdTe by the Markov Method in Semiclosed Ampoules 2643.4 Epitaxial Growth Techniques 2673.4.1 Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) 2703.4.2 Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) 2793.5 Supplementary Material: Principles of Verneuil Technique, Growth from High and Low Temperature, Nonmetallic Solutions 2953.5.1 Verneuil Technique 2953.5.2 Growth from High Temperature Solutions (Flux Growth) 2953.5.3 Growth from Low Temperature Solutions (Aqueous Solutions) 296References 2984 Characterization of Crystals 3014.1 Crystal Defects 3024.1.1 Zero-Dimensional Defects 3034.1.2 One-Dimensional Defects 3144.1.3 Two-Dimensional Defects (Planar Defects) 3264.1.3.1 Grain Boundaries 3284.1.3.2 Stacking Faults 3364.1.3.3 Antiphase Boundaries 3404.1.3.4 Twins 3424.1.3.5 Domain Boundaries 3554.1.3.6 Crystal Surfaces 3634.1.4 Three-Dimensional defects 3684.1.4.1 Inclusions 3694.1.4.2 Precipitates 3704.1.4.3 Voids 3744.2 Crystal Quality 3754.2.1 Criteria of Crystal Quality 3764.2.2 Crystal Quality and Application 3784.3 Selected Methods of Crystal Characterization 3824.3.1 Etching of Crystals 3824.3.2 X-Ray Topography 3834.3.3 Electron Microscopy 3854.3.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 3874.3.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 3884.4 Materials Engineering by Correlation of Crystal Growth and Characterization 392Anna Mogilatenko4.4.1 Epitaxial Growth of GaN on LiAlO2 Substrates 393References 408Index 415