Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor and Director of Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the applications of Nanotechnology & Advanced technologies & Materials, Analytical Chemistry, and Environmental Management.Sudheesh K. Shukla works in translational research for the development of bioelectronics devices for disease alert, with a focus on interfacing chemistry/materials science and engineering for better healthcare and biology applications. In particular, Dr. Shukla is interested in integrating biomaterials with micro- and nano-systems for sensing and actuation technologies.

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• Preface xvAbout the Editors xviiPart I Introduction 11 Current Diagnostic Approach for COVID-19 3Nitika Thakur and Rachit Sood1.1 Introduction 31.2 Recommended Laboratory Diagnosis for COVID-19 31.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Detection Approach by Screening Suitable Specimen Cultures 31.2.2 SARS-CoV-2 Detection: The Nucleic Acid Approach 41.2.2.1 COVID-19 Detection Approach Through Real-Time PCR 41.2.2.2 Detection Approach Through Nested RT-PCR 51.2.2.3 Detection and Analysis Approach via Droplet Digital PCR 61.2.2.4 Lab-on-chip Approaches Using Nucleic Acid as Chief Target Points 61.2.2.5 Analysis Through Nanoparticle Amplification Process 71.2.2.6 Portable Methodology: The Concept of Benchtop-Sized Analyzer 71.3 Antigenic Approach for COVID-19 Diagnosis 81.4 Antibody Diagnostic Strategies for Detection of COVID-19 101.4.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Strategies: The Vircell and Euroimmun ELISA 111.4.2 Immunoassay-Based Detection Approach: Immunofluorescence and Chemiluminescence Assay 111.5 Point-of-care/Lab-on-chip Approaches: The LFA (Lateral Flow Assay) 121.6 Miniaturization Detection Approach: Combining Microarray with Microfluidic Chip Technology 121.7 Neutralization Detection Approaches Toward COVID-19 131.8 Genomic Sequencing Detection Approach: The Amplicon, Hybrid Capture, and Meta-transcriptomic Strategy 131.9 Conclusion 14References 142 COVID-19 Diagnostics: Current Approach, Challenges, and Technology Adaptation 23Prama Bhattacherjee, Santanu Patra, Abhishek Mishra, Trupti R. Das, Hemlata Dewangan, Rajgourab Ghosh, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Anshuman Mishra2.1 Introduction 232.2 Diagnosis of COVID-19 252.2.1 Clinical Diagnosis 252.2.2 Sample Collection and Testing 262.3 Understanding Genetic Consequences 272.3.1 SARS-CoV-2 Genome and Database 272.3.2 Infection and Genetic Diagnosis 272.3.3 Real-Time PCR 272.4 Understanding Immunological Consequences 282.4.1 Role of Immunological Test 282.4.2 Rapid Antigen Testing 292.4.3 Rapid Antibody Tests 292.5 Protein Testing 292.5.1 Computed Tomography 292.6 Challenges 302.6.1 Challenges of Developing COVID-19 Tests 302.6.2 Sample Collection and Tests 312.7 Advanced Diagnosis Technologies and Adaptation 312.8 Adaptation of a New Approach 312.8.1 Emerging Diagnostic Tests for COVID-19 332.8.2 Role of siRNA, Nanoparticle Toward COVID-19 332.8.3 RT-LAMP Nucleic Acid Testing 342.8.4 Point-of-care Testing 342.8.5 FNCAS9 Editor-Limited Uniform Detection Assay 342.8.6 Development of a Novel Technology for COVID-19 Rapid Test 342.8.7 Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter Unlocking 352.9 Digital Healthcare Technologies 352.9.1 Artificial Intelligence and Mass Healthcare 362.9.2 Standard Healthcare Management During Pandemic Crisis 362.10 Implications of Technology-Based Diagnosis and Testing 362.10.1 Benefit of Diagnosis 372.11 Conclusion 372.12 Future Prospects 38Acknowledgment 39References 393 Current Scenario of Pandemic COVID-19: Overview, Diagnosis, and Future Prospective 43Bindu Mangla, Shinu Chauhan, Shreya Kathuria, Prashant, Mohit, Meenakshi, Santanu Patra, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain3.1 Introduction 433.2 Diagnosis and Treatment 473.3 Infection and Control 493.4 Current Status of COVID-19 503.5 Recommendation 513.6 Conclusion 52References 53Part II Bio-analytical Strategies for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 574 COVID Detection via Nanotechnology: A Promising Field in the Diagnosis and Analysis of Novel Coronavirus Infection 59Nitika Thakur, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery M. Hussain4.1 Introduction 594.1.1 Pandemic Outbreak of COVID-19: A Tour Around the Globe from Wuhan 594.1.2 Nanotech Solutions for Faster Detection Analysis of COVID-19 604.2 Methodologies from Lab to People: Advantages of Nanovaccines in Providing Point-of-care Diagnosis 604.3 An Overview: The Potential Strategies Related to Nanotechnology for Combating COVID-19 614.3.1 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Reverse Transcriptase Coupling with Nanobiosensors 624.3.2 Nanopoint-of-care/Lab-on-chip Diagnosis: A Strategy to Reach out the Resource-Poor Areas 634.3.3 Tagging up the Biosensor with Optics for Reducing the Long Detection Time 634.3.4 Sequencing Strategy Involving the Nanopore-Assisted Target Sequencing (NTS) 634.4 Screening of Potential Agents for Restricting the Rapid Spread of COVID-19 644.5 Potential New Generation Vaccines: A Journey from Nucleoside, Subunit, Peptide Analogs to Nanoformulation 654.5.1 Nucleoside Analog Vaccines: Searching Potential Candidates Among DNA, RNA, and mRNA 654.5.2 Nano-VLP Subunit Vaccines: A Stable and Ordered Vaccine Complex 674.5.3 Nanopeptide-Based Vaccines: “Hitchhiking Through Albumin” 684.6 Future Prospective: Resolving the Big Pandemics 684.7 Conclusion 69References 695 Biosensing Approach for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 75Varun Rawat, Sonam, Diksha Gahlot, Kritika Nagpal, and Seema R. Pathak5.1 Introduction 755.2 SARS-COVID-19 Structure and Genome 765.3 SARS-COVID-19 Sensors 775.3.1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 775.3.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) 785.3.3 Cell-Based Potentiometric Biosensor 795.3.4 eCovSens 795.3.5 CRISPR/Cas12 805.3.6 DNA Nanoscaffold Hybrid Chain Reaction (DNHCR)-Based Fluorescence Biosensor 815.4 Biomarkers 835.5 Conclusion 84References 846 Role of Nanotechnology in Coronavirus Detection 87AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Bashir Adelodun, Hashim O. Bakare, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Kola Y. Kareem, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, and Jamiu A. Adeniran6.1 Introduction 876.2 Application of Nanomaterials 886.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles 886.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles 886.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 896.3 Nanotechnology and Application in Medicine 906.3.1 Biobarriers 906.3.2 Molecular Imaging 906.3.3 Early Detection 916.3.4 Nanodiagnostics 916.4 Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection 926.4.1 Biosensors 936.4.2 Nano-Based Biosensors 936.5 Coronavirus Detection 936.5.1 Biosensors for COVID-19 Detection 946.5.2 Nano-Based Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 956.6 Emerging Concerns on COVID-19 966.6.1 Nanotechnology in COVID-19 ContaminatedWater 976.7 Nanotoxicity 986.8 Conclusion 98References 99Part III Biosensors for Analysis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 1057 Sensor Development for Coronavirus 107Ranjita D. Tandel, Nagappa L. Teradal, and Sudheesh K. Shukla7.1 Introduction 1077.2 Conclusions 1187.3 Future Perspectives 119References 1198 Chemical Sensor for the Diagnosis of Coronavirus 123Gyandshwar K. Rao, Ashish K. Sengar, and Seema R. Pathak8.1 Introduction 1238.2 Multiplexed Nanomaterial-Based Sensor 1248.3 Nanomaterial-Mediated Paper-Based Sensors 1268.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Technology 1278.5 Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Sensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 1288.6 Zirconium Quantum Dot-Based Chemical Sensors 1288.7 Calixarene-Functionalized Graphene Oxide-Based Sensors 1298.8 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor-Based Sensors 1308.9 Conclusion 132References 1329 Lab on a Paper-Based Device for Coronavirus Biosensing 137Lucas Felipe de Lima, Ariana de Souza Moraes, Paulo de Tarso Garcia, and William Reis de Araujo9.1 Paper-Based Technology as Point-of-care Testing Devices 1379.1.1 Fabrication Methods 1409.1.2 Main Detection Methods Coupled to PADs 1419.2 Current Outbreak and Coronavirus Biology 1429.3 Main Approach Used to COVID-19 Biosensing 1449.4 Paper-Based Analytical Devices for COVID-19 Diagnostics 1459.5 Challenges and Perspectives 155Acknowledgments 156References 157Part IV Commercialization and Standardization of Analytical Technologies 16310 Nanobioengineering Approach for Early Detection of SARS-CoV-2 165Sidra Rashid, Umay Amara, Khalid Mahmood, Mian H. Nawaz, and Akhtar Hayat10.1 Introduction 16510.2 Can Nanobioengineering Stand in the Battle Against SARS-CoV-2? 16610.3 Sequential and Molecular Data Analysis 16710.3.1 Role of Nanobioengineering for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 16810.4 Nanobioengineering-Based Detection of SARS-CoV-2 16910.4.1 Nucleic Acid-Based Molecular Detection 16910.4.1.1 Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 16910.4.1.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) 17210.4.2 Protein-Based Detection 17210.4.3 Lymphopenia-Based Assessment 17510.4.4 Bioengineered Surfaces for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 17710.4.5 Nanobioengineered Prototypes 17710.4.6 Digital Radiographical Biosensing Platforms 17710.4.7 Other Methods for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 17910.5 Discussion 17910.6 Conclusions 18010.7 Expert Opinion 18010.8 Future Directions 181References 18111 Development of Electrochemical Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 187Fulden Ulucan-Karnak, Cansu ˙I. Kuru, and Zeynep Yilmaz-Sercinoglu11.1 Introduction 18711.2 Detection of Viral Infections 18711.2.1 Detection of Virus 18711.2.1.1 Electron Microscopy 18711.2.1.2 Viral Culture 18811.2.2 Detection of Viral DNA/RNA 18811.2.2.1 Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 18811.2.2.2 Microarrays 18911.2.3 Detection of Post-infection Antibodies 18911.2.3.1 Lateral Flow Immunoassays (LFIAs) 19011.2.3.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 19011.2.3.3 Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (CLIA) 19111.3 Current Biosensor Candidates for COVID-19 Detection 19311.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 19311.3.1.1 Impedimetry 19511.3.1.2 Potentiometry 19611.3.1.3 Conductometry 19711.3.1.4 Voltammetry 19711.3.1.5 Amperometry 19811.4 Conclusions 199References 20112 Electrochemical Biosensor Fabrication for Coronavirus Testing 207Monika Vats, Parvin, Mukul Taliyan, and Seema Rani Pathak12.1 Introduction 20712.2 Application of Electrochemical Biosensors 20912.3 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors 21012.4 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors for COVID-19 (Immunosensors) 21212.5 Conclusion 214References 215Part V Outlook 21913 Effects of COVID-19: An Environmental Point of View 221Kola Y. Kareem, Bashir Adelodun, AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, Hashim O. Bakare, and Jamiu A. Adeniran13.1 Introduction 22113.2 Methodological Approach 22413.3 Effects of COVID-19 on Socioeconomic Development in the Environment 22513.4 Environmental Management as an Important Factor for COVID-19 Transmission 22513.5 Environmental Impact Assessment of COVID-19 22613.5.1 Environmental Variables Related to COVID-19 22613.5.2 Effects of COVID-19 on Global Physical Environment: Air Quality and Environmental Pollution 22813.5.3 COVID-19 Impacts onWater Resources and Aquatic Life 23113.5.4 COVID-19 Impacts on Ecological Parameters and Soil Systems 23313.5.5 COVID-19 Impacts on Noise Pollution, Increased SolidWastes, and Recycling 23413.5.6 COVID-19 Impacts onWastewater Quality and Sanitary Systems 23413.5.7 Socioeconomic Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 23513.5.8 Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment 23513.6 Conclusion 236References 23714 COVID-19 Pandemic and CO2 Emission in the United States: A Sectoral Analysis 243Afees A. Salisu, Tirimisiyu F. Oloko, and Idris A. Adediran14.1 Introduction 24314.2 Stylized Facts on the Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sectoral CO2 Emission 24514.3 Data Issues and Methodology 24914.4 Empirical Results 25114.4.1 Preliminary Results 25114.4.2 Main Results 25114.5 Conclusion 255References 25715 Theranostic Approach for Coronavirus 261Anushree Pandey, Asif Ali, and Yuvraj S. Negi15.1 Introduction 26115.2 Conventional Medicines 26215.3 Role of Nanoparticles in COVID-19 Detection 26515.4 Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP) Coupled with a Nanoparticle-Based Biosensor (NBS) Assay 26515.5 Point-of-care Testing 26615.6 Optical Biosensor Nanotechnology 26815.7 Nanopore Target Sequencing (NTS) 26815.8 Role of Nanotechnology in the Treatment 26915.9 Conclusion 270References 270Index 275

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor and Director of Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the applications of Nanotechnology & Advanced technologies & Materials, Analytical Chemistry, and Environmental Management.Sudheesh K. Shukla works in translational research for the development of bioelectronics devices for disease alert, with a focus on interfacing chemistry/materials science and engineering for better healthcare and biology applications. In particular, Dr. Shukla is interested in integrating biomaterials with micro- and nano-systems for sensing and actuation technologies.

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• Preface xvAbout the Editors xviiPart I Introduction 11 Current Diagnostic Approach for COVID-19 3Nitika Thakur and Rachit Sood1.1 Introduction 31.2 Recommended Laboratory Diagnosis for COVID-19 31.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Detection Approach by Screening Suitable Specimen Cultures 31.2.2 SARS-CoV-2 Detection: The Nucleic Acid Approach 41.2.2.1 COVID-19 Detection Approach Through Real-Time PCR 41.2.2.2 Detection Approach Through Nested RT-PCR 51.2.2.3 Detection and Analysis Approach via Droplet Digital PCR 61.2.2.4 Lab-on-chip Approaches Using Nucleic Acid as Chief Target Points 61.2.2.5 Analysis Through Nanoparticle Amplification Process 71.2.2.6 Portable Methodology: The Concept of Benchtop-Sized Analyzer 71.3 Antigenic Approach for COVID-19 Diagnosis 81.4 Antibody Diagnostic Strategies for Detection of COVID-19 101.4.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Strategies: The Vircell and Euroimmun ELISA 111.4.2 Immunoassay-Based Detection Approach: Immunofluorescence and Chemiluminescence Assay 111.5 Point-of-care/Lab-on-chip Approaches: The LFA (Lateral Flow Assay) 121.6 Miniaturization Detection Approach: Combining Microarray with Microfluidic Chip Technology 121.7 Neutralization Detection Approaches Toward COVID-19 131.8 Genomic Sequencing Detection Approach: The Amplicon, Hybrid Capture, and Meta-transcriptomic Strategy 131.9 Conclusion 14References 142 COVID-19 Diagnostics: Current Approach, Challenges, and Technology Adaptation 23Prama Bhattacherjee, Santanu Patra, Abhishek Mishra, Trupti R. Das, Hemlata Dewangan, Rajgourab Ghosh, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Anshuman Mishra2.1 Introduction 232.2 Diagnosis of COVID-19 252.2.1 Clinical Diagnosis 252.2.2 Sample Collection and Testing 262.3 Understanding Genetic Consequences 272.3.1 SARS-CoV-2 Genome and Database 272.3.2 Infection and Genetic Diagnosis 272.3.3 Real-Time PCR 272.4 Understanding Immunological Consequences 282.4.1 Role of Immunological Test 282.4.2 Rapid Antigen Testing 292.4.3 Rapid Antibody Tests 292.5 Protein Testing 292.5.1 Computed Tomography 292.6 Challenges 302.6.1 Challenges of Developing COVID-19 Tests 302.6.2 Sample Collection and Tests 312.7 Advanced Diagnosis Technologies and Adaptation 312.8 Adaptation of a New Approach 312.8.1 Emerging Diagnostic Tests for COVID-19 332.8.2 Role of siRNA, Nanoparticle Toward COVID-19 332.8.3 RT-LAMP Nucleic Acid Testing 342.8.4 Point-of-care Testing 342.8.5 FNCAS9 Editor-Limited Uniform Detection Assay 342.8.6 Development of a Novel Technology for COVID-19 Rapid Test 342.8.7 Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter Unlocking 352.9 Digital Healthcare Technologies 352.9.1 Artificial Intelligence and Mass Healthcare 362.9.2 Standard Healthcare Management During Pandemic Crisis 362.10 Implications of Technology-Based Diagnosis and Testing 362.10.1 Benefit of Diagnosis 372.11 Conclusion 372.12 Future Prospects 38Acknowledgment 39References 393 Current Scenario of Pandemic COVID-19: Overview, Diagnosis, and Future Prospective 43Bindu Mangla, Shinu Chauhan, Shreya Kathuria, Prashant, Mohit, Meenakshi, Santanu Patra, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain3.1 Introduction 433.2 Diagnosis and Treatment 473.3 Infection and Control 493.4 Current Status of COVID-19 503.5 Recommendation 513.6 Conclusion 52References 53Part II Bio-analytical Strategies for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 574 COVID Detection via Nanotechnology: A Promising Field in the Diagnosis and Analysis of Novel Coronavirus Infection 59Nitika Thakur, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery M. Hussain4.1 Introduction 594.1.1 Pandemic Outbreak of COVID-19: A Tour Around the Globe from Wuhan 594.1.2 Nanotech Solutions for Faster Detection Analysis of COVID-19 604.2 Methodologies from Lab to People: Advantages of Nanovaccines in Providing Point-of-care Diagnosis 604.3 An Overview: The Potential Strategies Related to Nanotechnology for Combating COVID-19 614.3.1 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Reverse Transcriptase Coupling with Nanobiosensors 624.3.2 Nanopoint-of-care/Lab-on-chip Diagnosis: A Strategy to Reach out the Resource-Poor Areas 634.3.3 Tagging up the Biosensor with Optics for Reducing the Long Detection Time 634.3.4 Sequencing Strategy Involving the Nanopore-Assisted Target Sequencing (NTS) 634.4 Screening of Potential Agents for Restricting the Rapid Spread of COVID-19 644.5 Potential New Generation Vaccines: A Journey from Nucleoside, Subunit, Peptide Analogs to Nanoformulation 654.5.1 Nucleoside Analog Vaccines: Searching Potential Candidates Among DNA, RNA, and mRNA 654.5.2 Nano-VLP Subunit Vaccines: A Stable and Ordered Vaccine Complex 674.5.3 Nanopeptide-Based Vaccines: “Hitchhiking Through Albumin” 684.6 Future Prospective: Resolving the Big Pandemics 684.7 Conclusion 69References 695 Biosensing Approach for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 75Varun Rawat, Sonam, Diksha Gahlot, Kritika Nagpal, and Seema R. Pathak5.1 Introduction 755.2 SARS-COVID-19 Structure and Genome 765.3 SARS-COVID-19 Sensors 775.3.1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 775.3.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) 785.3.3 Cell-Based Potentiometric Biosensor 795.3.4 eCovSens 795.3.5 CRISPR/Cas12 805.3.6 DNA Nanoscaffold Hybrid Chain Reaction (DNHCR)-Based Fluorescence Biosensor 815.4 Biomarkers 835.5 Conclusion 84References 846 Role of Nanotechnology in Coronavirus Detection 87AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Bashir Adelodun, Hashim O. Bakare, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Kola Y. Kareem, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, and Jamiu A. Adeniran6.1 Introduction 876.2 Application of Nanomaterials 886.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles 886.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles 886.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 896.3 Nanotechnology and Application in Medicine 906.3.1 Biobarriers 906.3.2 Molecular Imaging 906.3.3 Early Detection 916.3.4 Nanodiagnostics 916.4 Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection 926.4.1 Biosensors 936.4.2 Nano-Based Biosensors 936.5 Coronavirus Detection 936.5.1 Biosensors for COVID-19 Detection 946.5.2 Nano-Based Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 956.6 Emerging Concerns on COVID-19 966.6.1 Nanotechnology in COVID-19 ContaminatedWater 976.7 Nanotoxicity 986.8 Conclusion 98References 99Part III Biosensors for Analysis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 1057 Sensor Development for Coronavirus 107Ranjita D. Tandel, Nagappa L. Teradal, and Sudheesh K. Shukla7.1 Introduction 1077.2 Conclusions 1187.3 Future Perspectives 119References 1198 Chemical Sensor for the Diagnosis of Coronavirus 123Gyandshwar K. Rao, Ashish K. Sengar, and Seema R. Pathak8.1 Introduction 1238.2 Multiplexed Nanomaterial-Based Sensor 1248.3 Nanomaterial-Mediated Paper-Based Sensors 1268.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Technology 1278.5 Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Sensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 1288.6 Zirconium Quantum Dot-Based Chemical Sensors 1288.7 Calixarene-Functionalized Graphene Oxide-Based Sensors 1298.8 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor-Based Sensors 1308.9 Conclusion 132References 1329 Lab on a Paper-Based Device for Coronavirus Biosensing 137Lucas Felipe de Lima, Ariana de Souza Moraes, Paulo de Tarso Garcia, and William Reis de Araujo9.1 Paper-Based Technology as Point-of-care Testing Devices 1379.1.1 Fabrication Methods 1409.1.2 Main Detection Methods Coupled to PADs 1419.2 Current Outbreak and Coronavirus Biology 1429.3 Main Approach Used to COVID-19 Biosensing 1449.4 Paper-Based Analytical Devices for COVID-19 Diagnostics 1459.5 Challenges and Perspectives 155Acknowledgments 156References 157Part IV Commercialization and Standardization of Analytical Technologies 16310 Nanobioengineering Approach for Early Detection of SARS-CoV-2 165Sidra Rashid, Umay Amara, Khalid Mahmood, Mian H. Nawaz, and Akhtar Hayat10.1 Introduction 16510.2 Can Nanobioengineering Stand in the Battle Against SARS-CoV-2? 16610.3 Sequential and Molecular Data Analysis 16710.3.1 Role of Nanobioengineering for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 16810.4 Nanobioengineering-Based Detection of SARS-CoV-2 16910.4.1 Nucleic Acid-Based Molecular Detection 16910.4.1.1 Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 16910.4.1.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) 17210.4.2 Protein-Based Detection 17210.4.3 Lymphopenia-Based Assessment 17510.4.4 Bioengineered Surfaces for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 17710.4.5 Nanobioengineered Prototypes 17710.4.6 Digital Radiographical Biosensing Platforms 17710.4.7 Other Methods for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 17910.5 Discussion 17910.6 Conclusions 18010.7 Expert Opinion 18010.8 Future Directions 181References 18111 Development of Electrochemical Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 187Fulden Ulucan-Karnak, Cansu ˙I. Kuru, and Zeynep Yilmaz-Sercinoglu11.1 Introduction 18711.2 Detection of Viral Infections 18711.2.1 Detection of Virus 18711.2.1.1 Electron Microscopy 18711.2.1.2 Viral Culture 18811.2.2 Detection of Viral DNA/RNA 18811.2.2.1 Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 18811.2.2.2 Microarrays 18911.2.3 Detection of Post-infection Antibodies 18911.2.3.1 Lateral Flow Immunoassays (LFIAs) 19011.2.3.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 19011.2.3.3 Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (CLIA) 19111.3 Current Biosensor Candidates for COVID-19 Detection 19311.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 19311.3.1.1 Impedimetry 19511.3.1.2 Potentiometry 19611.3.1.3 Conductometry 19711.3.1.4 Voltammetry 19711.3.1.5 Amperometry 19811.4 Conclusions 199References 20112 Electrochemical Biosensor Fabrication for Coronavirus Testing 207Monika Vats, Parvin, Mukul Taliyan, and Seema Rani Pathak12.1 Introduction 20712.2 Application of Electrochemical Biosensors 20912.3 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors 21012.4 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors for COVID-19 (Immunosensors) 21212.5 Conclusion 214References 215Part V Outlook 21913 Effects of COVID-19: An Environmental Point of View 221Kola Y. Kareem, Bashir Adelodun, AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, Hashim O. Bakare, and Jamiu A. Adeniran13.1 Introduction 22113.2 Methodological Approach 22413.3 Effects of COVID-19 on Socioeconomic Development in the Environment 22513.4 Environmental Management as an Important Factor for COVID-19 Transmission 22513.5 Environmental Impact Assessment of COVID-19 22613.5.1 Environmental Variables Related to COVID-19 22613.5.2 Effects of COVID-19 on Global Physical Environment: Air Quality and Environmental Pollution 22813.5.3 COVID-19 Impacts onWater Resources and Aquatic Life 23113.5.4 COVID-19 Impacts on Ecological Parameters and Soil Systems 23313.5.5 COVID-19 Impacts on Noise Pollution, Increased SolidWastes, and Recycling 23413.5.6 COVID-19 Impacts onWastewater Quality and Sanitary Systems 23413.5.7 Socioeconomic Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 23513.5.8 Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment 23513.6 Conclusion 236References 23714 COVID-19 Pandemic and CO2 Emission in the United States: A Sectoral Analysis 243Afees A. Salisu, Tirimisiyu F. Oloko, and Idris A. Adediran14.1 Introduction 24314.2 Stylized Facts on the Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sectoral CO2 Emission 24514.3 Data Issues and Methodology 24914.4 Empirical Results 25114.4.1 Preliminary Results 25114.4.2 Main Results 25114.5 Conclusion 255References 25715 Theranostic Approach for Coronavirus 261Anushree Pandey, Asif Ali, and Yuvraj S. Negi15.1 Introduction 26115.2 Conventional Medicines 26215.3 Role of Nanoparticles in COVID-19 Detection 26515.4 Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP) Coupled with a Nanoparticle-Based Biosensor (NBS) Assay 26515.5 Point-of-care Testing 26615.6 Optical Biosensor Nanotechnology 26815.7 Nanopore Target Sequencing (NTS) 26815.8 Role of Nanotechnology in the Treatment 26915.9 Conclusion 270References 270Index 275

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor and Director of Labs in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the applications of Nanotechnology & Advanced technologies & Materials, Analytical Chemistry, and Environmental Management.Sudheesh K. Shukla works in translational research for the development of bioelectronics devices for disease alert, with a focus on interfacing chemistry/materials science and engineering for better healthcare and biology applications. In particular, Dr. Shukla is interested in integrating biomaterials with micro- and nano-systems for sensing and actuation technologies.

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• Preface xvAbout the Editors xviiPart I Introduction 11 Current Diagnostic Approach for COVID-19 3Nitika Thakur and Rachit Sood1.1 Introduction 31.2 Recommended Laboratory Diagnosis for COVID-19 31.2.1 SARS-CoV-2 Testing: Detection Approach by Screening Suitable Specimen Cultures 31.2.2 SARS-CoV-2 Detection: The Nucleic Acid Approach 41.2.2.1 COVID-19 Detection Approach Through Real-Time PCR 41.2.2.2 Detection Approach Through Nested RT-PCR 51.2.2.3 Detection and Analysis Approach via Droplet Digital PCR 61.2.2.4 Lab-on-chip Approaches Using Nucleic Acid as Chief Target Points 61.2.2.5 Analysis Through Nanoparticle Amplification Process 71.2.2.6 Portable Methodology: The Concept of Benchtop-Sized Analyzer 71.3 Antigenic Approach for COVID-19 Diagnosis 81.4 Antibody Diagnostic Strategies for Detection of COVID-19 101.4.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Strategies: The Vircell and Euroimmun ELISA 111.4.2 Immunoassay-Based Detection Approach: Immunofluorescence and Chemiluminescence Assay 111.5 Point-of-care/Lab-on-chip Approaches: The LFA (Lateral Flow Assay) 121.6 Miniaturization Detection Approach: Combining Microarray with Microfluidic Chip Technology 121.7 Neutralization Detection Approaches Toward COVID-19 131.8 Genomic Sequencing Detection Approach: The Amplicon, Hybrid Capture, and Meta-transcriptomic Strategy 131.9 Conclusion 14References 142 COVID-19 Diagnostics: Current Approach, Challenges, and Technology Adaptation 23Prama Bhattacherjee, Santanu Patra, Abhishek Mishra, Trupti R. Das, Hemlata Dewangan, Rajgourab Ghosh, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Anshuman Mishra2.1 Introduction 232.2 Diagnosis of COVID-19 252.2.1 Clinical Diagnosis 252.2.2 Sample Collection and Testing 262.3 Understanding Genetic Consequences 272.3.1 SARS-CoV-2 Genome and Database 272.3.2 Infection and Genetic Diagnosis 272.3.3 Real-Time PCR 272.4 Understanding Immunological Consequences 282.4.1 Role of Immunological Test 282.4.2 Rapid Antigen Testing 292.4.3 Rapid Antibody Tests 292.5 Protein Testing 292.5.1 Computed Tomography 292.6 Challenges 302.6.1 Challenges of Developing COVID-19 Tests 302.6.2 Sample Collection and Tests 312.7 Advanced Diagnosis Technologies and Adaptation 312.8 Adaptation of a New Approach 312.8.1 Emerging Diagnostic Tests for COVID-19 332.8.2 Role of siRNA, Nanoparticle Toward COVID-19 332.8.3 RT-LAMP Nucleic Acid Testing 342.8.4 Point-of-care Testing 342.8.5 FNCAS9 Editor-Limited Uniform Detection Assay 342.8.6 Development of a Novel Technology for COVID-19 Rapid Test 342.8.7 Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter Unlocking 352.9 Digital Healthcare Technologies 352.9.1 Artificial Intelligence and Mass Healthcare 362.9.2 Standard Healthcare Management During Pandemic Crisis 362.10 Implications of Technology-Based Diagnosis and Testing 362.10.1 Benefit of Diagnosis 372.11 Conclusion 372.12 Future Prospects 38Acknowledgment 39References 393 Current Scenario of Pandemic COVID-19: Overview, Diagnosis, and Future Prospective 43Bindu Mangla, Shinu Chauhan, Shreya Kathuria, Prashant, Mohit, Meenakshi, Santanu Patra, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain3.1 Introduction 433.2 Diagnosis and Treatment 473.3 Infection and Control 493.4 Current Status of COVID-19 503.5 Recommendation 513.6 Conclusion 52References 53Part II Bio-analytical Strategies for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 574 COVID Detection via Nanotechnology: A Promising Field in the Diagnosis and Analysis of Novel Coronavirus Infection 59Nitika Thakur, Sudheesh K. Shukla, and Chaudhery M. Hussain4.1 Introduction 594.1.1 Pandemic Outbreak of COVID-19: A Tour Around the Globe from Wuhan 594.1.2 Nanotech Solutions for Faster Detection Analysis of COVID-19 604.2 Methodologies from Lab to People: Advantages of Nanovaccines in Providing Point-of-care Diagnosis 604.3 An Overview: The Potential Strategies Related to Nanotechnology for Combating COVID-19 614.3.1 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Reverse Transcriptase Coupling with Nanobiosensors 624.3.2 Nanopoint-of-care/Lab-on-chip Diagnosis: A Strategy to Reach out the Resource-Poor Areas 634.3.3 Tagging up the Biosensor with Optics for Reducing the Long Detection Time 634.3.4 Sequencing Strategy Involving the Nanopore-Assisted Target Sequencing (NTS) 634.4 Screening of Potential Agents for Restricting the Rapid Spread of COVID-19 644.5 Potential New Generation Vaccines: A Journey from Nucleoside, Subunit, Peptide Analogs to Nanoformulation 654.5.1 Nucleoside Analog Vaccines: Searching Potential Candidates Among DNA, RNA, and mRNA 654.5.2 Nano-VLP Subunit Vaccines: A Stable and Ordered Vaccine Complex 674.5.3 Nanopeptide-Based Vaccines: “Hitchhiking Through Albumin” 684.6 Future Prospective: Resolving the Big Pandemics 684.7 Conclusion 69References 695 Biosensing Approach for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 75Varun Rawat, Sonam, Diksha Gahlot, Kritika Nagpal, and Seema R. Pathak5.1 Introduction 755.2 SARS-COVID-19 Structure and Genome 765.3 SARS-COVID-19 Sensors 775.3.1 Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) Sensor 775.3.2 Field Effect Transistor (FET) 785.3.3 Cell-Based Potentiometric Biosensor 795.3.4 eCovSens 795.3.5 CRISPR/Cas12 805.3.6 DNA Nanoscaffold Hybrid Chain Reaction (DNHCR)-Based Fluorescence Biosensor 815.4 Biomarkers 835.5 Conclusion 84References 846 Role of Nanotechnology in Coronavirus Detection 87AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Bashir Adelodun, Hashim O. Bakare, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Kola Y. Kareem, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, and Jamiu A. Adeniran6.1 Introduction 876.2 Application of Nanomaterials 886.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles 886.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles 886.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 896.3 Nanotechnology and Application in Medicine 906.3.1 Biobarriers 906.3.2 Molecular Imaging 906.3.3 Early Detection 916.3.4 Nanodiagnostics 916.4 Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection 926.4.1 Biosensors 936.4.2 Nano-Based Biosensors 936.5 Coronavirus Detection 936.5.1 Biosensors for COVID-19 Detection 946.5.2 Nano-Based Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 956.6 Emerging Concerns on COVID-19 966.6.1 Nanotechnology in COVID-19 ContaminatedWater 976.7 Nanotoxicity 986.8 Conclusion 98References 99Part III Biosensors for Analysis of SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 1057 Sensor Development for Coronavirus 107Ranjita D. Tandel, Nagappa L. Teradal, and Sudheesh K. Shukla7.1 Introduction 1077.2 Conclusions 1187.3 Future Perspectives 119References 1198 Chemical Sensor for the Diagnosis of Coronavirus 123Gyandshwar K. Rao, Ashish K. Sengar, and Seema R. Pathak8.1 Introduction 1238.2 Multiplexed Nanomaterial-Based Sensor 1248.3 Nanomaterial-Mediated Paper-Based Sensors 1268.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Technology 1278.5 Dual-Functional Plasmonic Photothermal Sensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 1288.6 Zirconium Quantum Dot-Based Chemical Sensors 1288.7 Calixarene-Functionalized Graphene Oxide-Based Sensors 1298.8 AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor-Based Sensors 1308.9 Conclusion 132References 1329 Lab on a Paper-Based Device for Coronavirus Biosensing 137Lucas Felipe de Lima, Ariana de Souza Moraes, Paulo de Tarso Garcia, and William Reis de Araujo9.1 Paper-Based Technology as Point-of-care Testing Devices 1379.1.1 Fabrication Methods 1409.1.2 Main Detection Methods Coupled to PADs 1419.2 Current Outbreak and Coronavirus Biology 1429.3 Main Approach Used to COVID-19 Biosensing 1449.4 Paper-Based Analytical Devices for COVID-19 Diagnostics 1459.5 Challenges and Perspectives 155Acknowledgments 156References 157Part IV Commercialization and Standardization of Analytical Technologies 16310 Nanobioengineering Approach for Early Detection of SARS-CoV-2 165Sidra Rashid, Umay Amara, Khalid Mahmood, Mian H. Nawaz, and Akhtar Hayat10.1 Introduction 16510.2 Can Nanobioengineering Stand in the Battle Against SARS-CoV-2? 16610.3 Sequential and Molecular Data Analysis 16710.3.1 Role of Nanobioengineering for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 16810.4 Nanobioengineering-Based Detection of SARS-CoV-2 16910.4.1 Nucleic Acid-Based Molecular Detection 16910.4.1.1 Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 16910.4.1.2 Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) 17210.4.2 Protein-Based Detection 17210.4.3 Lymphopenia-Based Assessment 17510.4.4 Bioengineered Surfaces for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 17710.4.5 Nanobioengineered Prototypes 17710.4.6 Digital Radiographical Biosensing Platforms 17710.4.7 Other Methods for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 17910.5 Discussion 17910.6 Conclusions 18010.7 Expert Opinion 18010.8 Future Directions 181References 18111 Development of Electrochemical Biosensors for Coronavirus Detection 187Fulden Ulucan-Karnak, Cansu ˙I. Kuru, and Zeynep Yilmaz-Sercinoglu11.1 Introduction 18711.2 Detection of Viral Infections 18711.2.1 Detection of Virus 18711.2.1.1 Electron Microscopy 18711.2.1.2 Viral Culture 18811.2.2 Detection of Viral DNA/RNA 18811.2.2.1 Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) 18811.2.2.2 Microarrays 18911.2.3 Detection of Post-infection Antibodies 18911.2.3.1 Lateral Flow Immunoassays (LFIAs) 19011.2.3.2 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 19011.2.3.3 Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (CLIA) 19111.3 Current Biosensor Candidates for COVID-19 Detection 19311.3.1 Electrochemical Biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 Detection 19311.3.1.1 Impedimetry 19511.3.1.2 Potentiometry 19611.3.1.3 Conductometry 19711.3.1.4 Voltammetry 19711.3.1.5 Amperometry 19811.4 Conclusions 199References 20112 Electrochemical Biosensor Fabrication for Coronavirus Testing 207Monika Vats, Parvin, Mukul Taliyan, and Seema Rani Pathak12.1 Introduction 20712.2 Application of Electrochemical Biosensors 20912.3 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors 21012.4 Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors for COVID-19 (Immunosensors) 21212.5 Conclusion 214References 215Part V Outlook 21913 Effects of COVID-19: An Environmental Point of View 221Kola Y. Kareem, Bashir Adelodun, AbdulGafar O. Tiamiyu, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Rahmat G. Ibrahim, Golden Odey, Madhumita Goala, Hashim O. Bakare, and Jamiu A. Adeniran13.1 Introduction 22113.2 Methodological Approach 22413.3 Effects of COVID-19 on Socioeconomic Development in the Environment 22513.4 Environmental Management as an Important Factor for COVID-19 Transmission 22513.5 Environmental Impact Assessment of COVID-19 22613.5.1 Environmental Variables Related to COVID-19 22613.5.2 Effects of COVID-19 on Global Physical Environment: Air Quality and Environmental Pollution 22813.5.3 COVID-19 Impacts onWater Resources and Aquatic Life 23113.5.4 COVID-19 Impacts on Ecological Parameters and Soil Systems 23313.5.5 COVID-19 Impacts on Noise Pollution, Increased SolidWastes, and Recycling 23413.5.6 COVID-19 Impacts onWastewater Quality and Sanitary Systems 23413.5.7 Socioeconomic Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 23513.5.8 Indirect Effects of COVID-19 on the Environment 23513.6 Conclusion 236References 23714 COVID-19 Pandemic and CO2 Emission in the United States: A Sectoral Analysis 243Afees A. Salisu, Tirimisiyu F. Oloko, and Idris A. Adediran14.1 Introduction 24314.2 Stylized Facts on the Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sectoral CO2 Emission 24514.3 Data Issues and Methodology 24914.4 Empirical Results 25114.4.1 Preliminary Results 25114.4.2 Main Results 25114.5 Conclusion 255References 25715 Theranostic Approach for Coronavirus 261Anushree Pandey, Asif Ali, and Yuvraj S. Negi15.1 Introduction 26115.2 Conventional Medicines 26215.3 Role of Nanoparticles in COVID-19 Detection 26515.4 Reverse Transcription Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (RT-LAMP) Coupled with a Nanoparticle-Based Biosensor (NBS) Assay 26515.5 Point-of-care Testing 26615.6 Optical Biosensor Nanotechnology 26815.7 Nanopore Target Sequencing (NTS) 26815.8 Role of Nanotechnology in the Treatment 26915.9 Conclusion 270References 270Index 275