Principles of Semiconductor Processes and Device Technology

Zhigang Zang, PhD, is a Professor and doctoral supervisor at Chongqing University, winner of the National Youth Talent Project and Chongqing Outstanding Youth Fund. Previously a researcher at National Shizuoka University in Japan and Nanyang Technological University in Singapore, he was selected as a leading talent in Chongqing and distinguished professor of Bayu Scholars in 2019. Qingkai Qian, PhD, is an Associate Professor at the College of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University. A former postdoctoral researcher at The Pennsylvania State University, his research focuses on optoelectronic devices based on perovskites and low-dimensional materials. He serves as a young editorial board member of Rare Metals and Vacuum.

• Preface xiii1 Semiconductor Physics 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Properties of Semiconductors 21.2.1 Atomic Bonding of Semiconductors 21.2.2 External Modulation Effects 31.3 Crystal Structure and Types of Semiconductors 61.3.1 Lattice and Crystal Systems 61.3.2 Reciprocal Lattice and Miller Indices 91.3.3 Common Semiconductor Crystal Structures 111.4 Carrier Transport 141.4.1 Carrier Drift and Diffusion 141.4.2 Quasi-Fermi Levels and Electrochemical Potentials 181.4.3 Carrier Generation and Recombination 191.5 Doping Process 221.5.1 Point Defects and Energy Levels 221.5.2 Doping Techniques 251.5.2.1 Thermal Diffusion 251.5.2.2 Ion Implantation 291.6 Energy Band Theory 311.6.1 Quantum Mechanical Equation and Bloch Wavefunction 311.6.2 Band Structures and Carrier Transport 341.7 PN Junctions 371.7.1 Depletion Region and Built-in Potential 381.7.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics 401.7.3 Breakdown Mechanisms in PN Junctions 44References 452 Synthesis and Characterization of Optoelectronic Materials 472.1 Introduction 472.2 Synthesis of Semiconductors 482.2.1 Chemical Method 482.2.1.1 Solid/Liquid Phase Chemical Synthesis 482.2.1.2 Vapor Phase Chemical Synthesis 512.2.2 Physical Method 532.2.2.1 Melt Growth Techniques 542.2.2.2 Vapor Phase Physical Deposition 552.2.3 Epitaxy Growth 572.3 Characterization 602.3.1 Characterization of Electrical Properties 602.3.1.1 Four Probe Measurement 602.3.1.2 Hall Effect Measurement 642.3.1.3 C–V and I–V Measurements 672.3.2 Characterization of Optical Properties 702.3.2.1 Photoluminescence Spectrum 702.3.2.2 Ultraviolet–Visible Absorption Spectrum 742.3.2.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrum 762.3.2.4 X-Ray Photoelectron Energy Spectrum 78References 813 EUV Lithography Process of Semiconductor Devices 833.1 Introduction 833.2 EUV Lithography System and Working Principles 853.2.1 EUV Light Source and Exposure System 853.2.2 EUV Lithography Equipment 863.3 Development of Resist for EUV Lithography 883.3.1 Polymer-Based Chemically Amplified Resist 883.3.2 Molecular Glass Resist 893.3.3 Metal-Based Nanoparticles Resist 913.4 Mask Materials and Designs for EUV Lithography 943.4.1 EUV Mask Fabrication Process 953.4.2 Mask Substrate 963.4.3 ml Mirror Layer 973.4.4 Absorber Layer 993.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 101References 1034 Transistors 1074.1 Introduction 1074.2 Bipolar Transistors 1074.2.1 Introduction 1074.2.2 Device Structures and Working Principles 1084.2.3 Biasing Modes and Circuit Configurations 1114.2.3.1 Biasing Modes 1114.2.3.2 Circuit Configurations 1114.2.4 NPN and PNP BJTs 1134.2.5 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 1174.3 Field-Effect Transistors 1194.3.1 Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor FETs 1204.3.1.1 Enhancement-Mode Operation 1234.3.1.2 Depletion-Mode Operation 1234.3.2 Junction FETs 1264.3.3 Metal–Semiconductor FETs 1314.3.4 Modulation-Doped FETs 1374.4 Thin-Film Transistors 1424.4.1 Introduction 1424.4.2 Device Structures and Characterizations 1424.4.2.1 Current On/Off Ratio (I ON /I OFF) 1454.4.2.2 Turn-On Voltage (V ON) 1454.4.2.3 Threshold Voltage (V TH) 1454.4.2.4 Subthreshold Swing (SS) 1454.4.2.5 Mobility (μ) 1464.4.3 Representative Materials and Devices 1474.4.4 Emerging Applications 1484.4.4.1 Flexible and Wearable Electronics 1484.4.4.2 Biosensors and Biomedical Applications 1494.4.4.3 Active-Matrix Displays and Transparent Electronics 1494.4.4.4 Internet of Things (IoT) 1494.4.4.5 Neuromorphic and Brain-Inspired Computing 1494.4.4.6 Stretchable and Implantable Electronics 150References 1505 Luminescent Materials and Devices 1515.1 Introduction 1515.2 Principle of Semiconductor Luminescence 1515.2.1 Radiative Recombination of Nonequilibrium Carriers 1515.2.1.1 Band-to-Band Recombination 1525.2.1.2 Band-to-Local-Energy-Level Recombination 1535.2.1.3 Donor–Acceptor Pair Recombination 1545.2.1.4 Exciton Recombination 1555.2.1.5 Isoelectronic Center Recombination 1565.2.2 Nonradiative Recombination Process 1575.2.2.1 Multi-phonon Process 1575.2.2.2 Auger Recombination 1575.2.3 Luminescent Semiconductors 1585.2.3.1 III–V Group Semiconductors 1585.2.3.2 II–VI Group Semiconductors 1605.2.3.3 Silicon Carbide (SiC) 1625.2.3.4 Organic Materials 1625.2.3.5 Phosphors 1625.2.3.6 Metal Halides 1625.3 Structure and Feature of LEDs 1645.3.1 Principle and Structure of LEDs 1645.3.1.1 Homojunction LEDs 1645.3.1.2 Double-Heterojunction LEDs 1655.3.2 Optical Properties of LEDs 1675.3.2.1 Efficiency of LEDs 1675.3.2.2 Luminescent Spectra 1675.3.2.3 Distribution of Emission Intensity 1685.3.2.4 Light-Extraction Efficiency 1685.3.2.5 Luminous Flux and Radiant Flux 1705.3.2.6 Luminous Intensity, Luminance, and Illuminance 1705.3.2.7 Temperature Effect 1705.4 Process of LEDs 1715.4.1 Growth of Emitting Materials in LEDs 1715.4.1.1 Growth Model of Emitting Materials in LEDs 1715.4.1.2 Growth of Emitting Layers 1725.4.2 Manufacture of LED Chips 1755.5 GaN LEDs 1805.5.1 Structure and Basic Properties of Nitrides 1805.5.2 Blue GaN LED 1815.5.3 Green and UV GaN LED 1835.6 Perovskite LEDs 1865.6.1 Structure and Progress of Perovskite LEDs 1865.6.2 Efficiency Enhancement of Perovskite LEDs 1875.6.2.1 Modulation of Carrier Dynamics 1875.6.2.2 Interfacial Engineering 1885.7 White LEDs 1905.7.1 GaN-Based White LEDs 1905.7.2 Perovskite-Based White LEDs 191References 1936 Superluminescent Light-Emitting Diodes 1956.1 Introduction 1956.2 History of SLED 1966.3 Principle of Active-MMI SLED 2006.3.1 Self-Imaging Consideration 2006.3.2 Wide-Spectrum Consideration 2016.4 Merit and Results of Active-MMI SLED 2026.4.1 High-Power and Low Wall-Plug Consumption 2056.4.2 Spectrum and Ripple Analysis 2076.4.3 Field Patterns and Fiber-Coupling Efficiency 208References 2137 Solar Cells 2157.1 Introduction 2157.1.1 Overview of Chapter 2157.1.2 Definition of Solar Cells 2157.1.3 Importance of Solar Cells in Renewable Energy 2167.2 Basic Principles of Solar Cells 2177.2.1 Solar Spectrum and Irradiance 2177.2.2 Photovoltaic Effect 2207.2.3 Solar Cell Structure 2217.2.4 Parameters of Solar Cells 2237.3 Typical Solar Cells 2257.3.1 Si Solar Cell 2257.3.2 CuInGaSe Solar Cell 2277.3.3 CdTe Solar Cell 2287.3.4 Organic Solar Cells 2307.3.5 Perovskite Solar Cell 2317.3.5.1 Crystal Structure of Perovskite Materials 2317.3.5.2 Device Structure of Perovskite Solar Cells 2327.3.5.3 Carrier Transport in Perovskite Solar Cells 2337.3.5.4 Primary Characterization Instrument 2347.4 Manufacturing of Solar Cells 2367.4.1 Si Solar Cell 2367.4.1.1 Atomic and Band Structures of Crystalline Silicon 2367.4.1.2 Properties of Crystalline Silicon 2387.4.1.3 Synthesis Method of Crystalline Silicon 2397.4.2 Perovskite Solar Cells 2397.4.2.1 One-Step Method 2397.4.2.2 Two-Step Method 2407.4.2.3 Vapor-Deposition Method 2417.4.2.4 Vapor-Assisted Solution Method 2417.5 Applications of Solar Cells 2427.6 Conclusion 244References 2468 Photodetectors 2498.1 Introduction 2498.2 Principle of Photodetectors 2518.2.1 Photoconductive Type 2518.2.1.1 Photoconduction Effect 2518.2.1.2 Theory of Photoresistor 2528.2.1.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics 2578.2.1.4 Photoelectric Characteristics 2578.2.1.5 Sensitivity and Gain 2588.2.1.6 Prehistory Effect 2608.2.2 Photodiode Type 2618.2.2.1 PN Junction Photodiode 2618.2.2.2 Schottky Barrier Photodiode 2618.2.2.3 Metal–Insulator–Semiconductor Photodiode 2628.2.2.4 Avalanche Photodiode 2628.2.2.5 PIN Photodiode 2638.2.3 Photovoltaic Type 2638.2.4 Photomultiplier Tube Type 2648.3 General Metrics of Photodetectors 2658.3.1 Dark Current 2658.3.2 Responsivity 2668.3.3 Detectivity 2668.3.4 Quantum Efficiency 2678.3.5 Spectral Range 2678.3.6 Response Time 2678.3.7 Noise 2688.4 Perovskite Photodetectors 2698.4.1 Infrared Detectors 2718.4.2 Visible-Light Detectors 2728.4.3 Ultraviolet-Light Detectors 2728.4.4 X-Ray Detectors 2738.4.4.1 Direct-Type X-Ray Detectors 2748.4.4.2 Indirect X-Ray Detection 2788.4.5 Gamma-Ray Detectors 2798.5 Metal–Semiconductor–Metal Photodetectors 2808.5.1 Introduction 2808.5.2 Design Considerations 2828.5.3 Advancements and Applications 2828.6 Organic Photomultiplication Detectors 2838.6.1 Introduction 2838.6.2 Design Considerations 2838.6.3 Advancements and Applications 284References 2859 Graphene and Graphene-Based Devices 2879.1 Introduction 2879.2 Structure and Properties of Graphene 2879.2.1 Crystal Structure of Graphene 2879.2.2 Extraordinary Properties of Graphene 2899.2.2.1 Electronic Properties 2899.2.2.2 Optical Properties 2919.2.2.3 Mechanical Properties 2919.2.2.4 Thermal Properties 2929.2.2.5 Chemical and Biological Properties 2939.3 Preparation Methods of Graphene 2949.3.1 Mechanical Exfoliation 2949.3.2 Electrochemical Exfoliation 2969.3.3 Direct Sonication Synthesis 2979.3.4 Epitaxial Growth 2979.3.5 CVD Growth 2989.3.6 Others 2999.4 Graphene-Based Devices 3009.4.1 FET Devices 3019.4.1.1 Electronic Transport Mechanism 3019.4.1.2 Device Structure of Graphene FETs 3029.4.1.3 Graphene Nanoribbon FETs 3049.4.1.4 Application of Graphene FETs 3059.4.2 Type I Two-Terminal Devices 3149.4.3 Type II Two-Terminal Devices 3169.4.4 Graphene Nanoelectromechanical Systems 3219.5 Future of Graphene-Based Devices 324References 325Index 329