Falah Alobaid is Professor and Head of the Institute for Industrial Energy Systems at Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology (LUT), Finland. Bernd Epple is Professor and Head of the Institute for Energy Systems and Technology at Technical University of Darmstadt (TUDa), Germany.

• Foreword xiiPreface xivNomenclature xviBefore You Start Reading xxxiii1 Introduction 11.1 Carbon Dioxide 21.2 Conversion Processes 71.3 Polygeneration 101.4 Structure 12Bibliography 152 Energy Conversion Processes 192.1 Introduction 192.2 Solid Fuels 212.2.1 Conventional Solid Fuels 242.2.2 Non-conventional Solid Fuels 262.2.3 Energy Carrier 32Bibliography 333 Combustion 373.1 Introduction 373.2 Technologies and Processes 403.2.1 Grate-firing 403.2.2 Fluidized-bed Technology 463.2.2.1 Fixed-bed Combustion 533.2.2.2 Bubbling Fluidized-bed Combustion 553.2.2.3 Circulating Fluidized-bed Combustion 563.2.3 Pulverised Combustion 593.2.4 Solar-assisted Power Plant 653.2.5 Geothermal-assisted Power Plant 693.2.6 Technologies Comparison 703.3 Thermodynamic Cycle 783.3.1 Steam Rankine Cycle 783.3.2 Organic Rankine Cycle 813.3.3 Kalina Cycle 843.3.4 Carbon Dioxide Brayton Cycle 873.3.5 Cycle Comparison 883.4 Pollutant Emissions 903.4.1 Carbon Monoxide 943.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides 943.4.3 Sulphur Oxides 973.4.4 Hydrogen Chloride 1013.4.5 Particulate Matter 1023.4.6 Mercury 103Bibliography 1044 Gasification 1114.1 Introduction 1114.2 Technologies and Processes 1134.2.1 Fixed-bed Gasifier 1144.2.2 Entrained-flow Gasifier 1164.2.3 Fluidized-bed Gasifier 1174.2.3.1 Single Fluidized-bed Gasification 1194.2.3.2 Dual Fluidized-bed Gasification 1214.2.4 Plasma Gasification 1324.2.5 Solar-driven Gasification 1364.2.6 Microwave-assisted Gasification 1374.2.7 Catalytic Gasification 1384.2.8 Technologies Comparison 1394.2.8.1 Feedstock 1424.2.8.2 Product Gas Quality 1444.2.8.3 Development Status 1504.2.8.4 Capital and Operational Expenditures 1504.3 Product Gas Purification and Conditioning 1504.3.1 Particulate Matter 1514.3.1.1 Electrostatic Precipitator 1544.3.2 Halide and Trace Metals 1554.3.3 Tar and Hydrocarbons 1564.3.4 Hydrogen-to-carbon Monoxide Ratio 1584.3.5 Acid Gas Removal 1614.4 Syngas Conversion Technologies 1624.4.1 Synthesis of Fuels and Chemicals 1634.4.1.1 Ammonia Synthesis 1664.4.1.2 Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 1674.4.1.3 Methanol Synthesis 1694.4.1.4 Mixed Alcohols Synthesis 1714.4.1.5 Syngas Fermentation 1724.4.1.6 Hydrogen Synthesis 1734.4.1.7 Technologies Comparison 1754.4.2 Power and Heat Generation 1784.4.2.1 Single-cycle Gas Turbine 1784.4.2.2 Combined Cycle Power Plant 1824.4.2.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine 1864.4.2.4 Fuel Cell 1884.4.2.5 Technologies Comparison 191Bibliography 1935 Other Conversion Technologies 2055.1 Pyrolysis 2055.1.1 Technologies and Processes 2065.1.2 Technologies Comparison 2085.2 Hydrothermal Process 2105.3 Steam Reforming 2125.3.1 Technologies and Processes 2145.3.1.1 Conventional SR 2145.3.1.2 Dry Reforming 2165.3.1.3 Partial Oxidation 2165.3.1.4 Other Processes 2175.3.2 Technologies Comparison 218Bibliography 2206 Semi-industrial Scale Conversion Experiments 2236.1 Introduction 2236.2 Combustion 2236.2.1 Fluidized-bed Combustion 2236.2.2 Pulverised Combustion 2366.3 Gasification 2406.3.1 High-temperature Winkler 2406.3.2 Chemical-looping Gasification 247Bibliography 2567 Carbon Capture, Storage/Utilisation 2597.1 Introduction 2597.1.1 Stationary Carbon Capture 2617.1.2 Mobile Carbon Capture 2667.1.3 Negative Carbon Emissions 2687.2 CO2 Transportation 2747.3 CO2 Storage/Utilisation 275Bibliography 2788 Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 2838.1 Introduction 2838.2 Conversion Processes 2848.2.1 Gasification 2848.2.2 Steam Reforming 2858.3 Carbon Capture Methods 2858.3.1 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 2858.3.1.1 Physical Absorption Processes 2858.3.1.2 Chemical Absorption Processes 2898.3.2 Adsorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 2958.3.2.1 Physical Adsorption Processes 2958.3.2.2 Chemical Adsorption Processes 2988.3.3 Other Carbon Capture Processes 2988.3.3.1 Membrane-based Processes 2988.3.3.2 Low-temperature Separation Processes 3048.3.3.3 Solar-assisted Pre-combustion Processes 305Bibliography 3069 Post-combustion Carbon Capture 3119.1 Introduction 3119.2 Carbon Capture Methods 3119.2.1 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 3139.2.2 Adsorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 3169.2.3 Other Carbon Capture Processes 3199.2.3.1 Membrane-based Processes 3199.2.3.2 Low-temperature Separation Processes 3229.2.3.3 Solar-assisted Post-combustion Carbon Capture Processes 3229.3 Carbonate-looping Process 3239.3.1 Directly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 3249.3.2 Indirectly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 3259.3.3 Fundamentals and Process Layout 3299.3.3.1 Chemical Equilibrium of the CaCO 3 -CaO System 3319.3.3.2 Reaction Regimes of the CaCO 3 /CaO System 3339.3.3.3 Deactivation of Sorbent 3349.3.3.4 Evaluation Parameters of the Carbonate-looping Process 3449.3.3.5 Pilot-scale Investigation of the CaL Process 346Bibliography 34910 Oxyfuel Combustion 35910.1 Introduction 35910.2 Non-cryogenic Processes 36310.2.1 Adsorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 36310.2.2 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 36410.2.3 Membrane-based Carbon Capture Processes 36510.2.3.1 Polymeric Membranes 36510.2.3.2 Ion Transport Membrane 36610.3 Cryogenic Processes 36810.4 Solar-assisted Oxyfuel Combustion Processes 36910.5 Technologies Comparison 37010.6 Chemical-looping Combustion 37210.6.1 CLC Processes 37310.6.1.1 Gaseous Fuel CLC Processes 37310.6.1.2 iG-CLC Processes 37310.6.1.3 CLOU Processes 37610.6.1.4 Syngas-CLC Processes 37710.6.2 Oxygen Carrier 37710.6.2.1 Reactivity 37810.6.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms 38010.6.2.3 Mechanical Resistance 38210.6.2.4 Cost 38210.6.3 Pilot-scale Investigation of CLC Process 38410.6.3.1 Gaseous Fuels 38410.6.3.2 Solid Fuels 387Bibliography 39211 Carbon Dioxide Utilisation 39911.1 Introduction 39911.2 Technologies and Processes 40111.2.1 Direct Use 40111.2.2 Indirect Use 40311.2.2.1 Chemical Utilisation 40311.2.2.2 Biological Utilisation 40511.2.2.3 Photoelectrochemical, Electrochemical, and Photochemical Reduction 40711.3 Technologies Comparison 411Bibliography 41512 Semi-industrial Scale Carbon Capture Experiments 41912.1 Introduction 41912.2 Carbonate-looping Process 41912.2.1 Directly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 41912.2.1.1 Waste-derived Fuels in Directly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 42612.2.1.2 Indirectly Heated Carbonate-looping Process 42912.3 Oxyfuel Combustion 43612.3.1 Oxyfuel Fluidized-bed Combustion 43612.3.2 Oxyfuel Pulverised Combustion 43812.3.3 Chemical-looping Combustion 44012.4 Absorption-based Carbon Capture Processes 444Bibliography 44713 Sustainability and Polygeneration 44913.1 Introduction 44913.2 Conversion Devices and Outputs 45513.2.1 Power, Heat, and Cooling 45613.2.2 Chemicals and Fuels 46313.2.3 Potable Water 46513.2.4 Energy Storage System 46913.3 Polygeneration with Carbon Capture 47113.4 Methodologies for Polygeneration Evaluation 472Bibliography 47414 Polygeneration Plants Based on Fossil Fuels 47914.1 Introduction 47914.2 Coal-based Polygeneration 48014.2.1 Energy Services 48214.2.2 Synthesis of Chemicals and Fuels 48614.2.3 Desalination Processes 49314.3 Natural Gas-based Polygeneration 49614.3.1 Energy Services 49814.3.2 Synthesis of Chemicals and Fuels 50214.3.3 Desalination Processes 50414.4 Other Fossil Fuel-based Polygeneration 50614.5 Multiple Fossil-fuels-based Polygeneration 509Bibliography 51115 Polygeneration Systems Based on Renewable Energy 52115.1 Introduction 52115.2 Biomass-based Polygeneration 52215.2.1 Energy Services 52415.2.2 Synthesis of Chemicals and Fuels 52815.2.3 Desalination Processes 53315.3 Solar-based Polygeneration 53415.4 Geothermal-based Polygeneration 53715.5 Wind-based Polygeneration 54015.6 Multiple Renewable Energy-based Polygeneration 540Bibliography 54316 Hybrid Polygeneration Plants Based on Renewables and Fossil Fuels 553Bibliography 56117 Numerical Simulation of Polygeneration 567Bibliography 56918 Process Simulation 57118.1 Introduction 57118.2 Process Components 57318.2.1 Connection Point 57518.2.2 Thin-walled Tube 57618.2.3 Thick-walled Tube 57818.2.4 Turbomachines 58118.3 Automation Components 58418.3.1 Measurement Modules 58518.3.2 Analogue Modules 58518.3.3 Binary Modules 58818.3.4 Signal Source Modules 59118.3.5 Controller Modules 59218.4 Electrical Components 59318.4.1 Basic Modules 59318.4.2 dc and AC Modules 59418.5 Additional Components 59618.6 Thermal Hydraulic Models 59918.6.1 Mixture-flow Model 60018.6.2 Two-fluid Model 60318.6.2.1 Four-equation Flow Model 60418.6.2.2 Five-equation Flow Model 60518.6.2.3 Six-equation Flow Model 60618.6.2.4 Seven-equation Model 61118.6.3 Solution Method 615Bibliography 61519 Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation 61919.1 Introduction 61919.2 Single-phase Flow 62019.2.1 Particle Methods 62019.2.2 Grid-based Methods 62219.3 Two-phase Flow 62419.3.1 Mixture Model 62719.3.2 Two-fluid Model 62719.3.3 Discrete-particle Model 63519.3.4 Hybrid Method 63919.3.5 Balance Equations for Solid-phase 64119.3.6 Interphase Coupling 64519.4 Turbulence 649Bibliography 65020 Process and Computational Fluid Dynamics Studies 655Bibliography 66221 Conclusion 673Index 679