Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites

Visakh P.M. is a Senior Researcher at the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, India, and currently Visiting Researcher in the Department of Agronomy at the University of Lisbon, Portugal. He has been invited as a visiting student/researcher to approximately fifteen European universities and is a prolific editor with seven books already published. His research interests include polymer nanocomposites, bio-nanocomposites, and rubber-based nanocomposites, fire-retardant polymers, and liquid crystalline polymers as well as silicon sensors. Maria Jose Martinez Morlanes gained her PhD in polymer science from the University Zaragoza, Spain where she is now an assistant professor.

"The book has splendid illustrations, many of them in color, and is written in an accessible manner. It provides a nice account about the revolution of materials happening today. It is recommended to anyone who wants to use materials to enrich optical science." (Optics & Photonics, 2016)

• List of Contributors XV1 Introduction for Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites: State of Art, New Challenges, and Opportunities 1P. M. Visakh1.1 Chemistry of Nanoscience and Technology 11.2 Carbon Nanotubes andTheir Nanocomposites 21.3 Graphene- and Graphene Sheets-Based Nanocomposites 31.4 Nanocomposites of Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS) andTheir Applications 41.5 Zeolites and Composites 61.6 Mesoporous Materials and Their Nanocomposites 71.7 Bio-Based Nanomaterials and Their Bio-Nanocomposites 91.8 Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) andTheir Composites 101.9 Modeling Methods for Modulus of Polymer/Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposites 121.10 Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose, Hemicelluloses, and Lignin 13References 152 Chemistry of Nanoscience and Technology 21Aftab Aslam Parwaz Khan, Anish Khan, and Abdullah M. Asiri2.1 Introduction 212.2 Nano 222.3 Nanomaterials 242.4 Quantum Materials 252.4.1 Classification of Superconductor 262.4.1.1 Response to a Magnetic Field 262.4.1.2 ByTheory of Operation 272.4.1.3 By Critical Temperature 272.4.1.4 By Material 272.4.1.5 Fullerene 282.5 Forces and Bonding of Nanomaterials 292.5.1 Hydrogen-Bonding Assemblies 292.5.2 π–π Stacking Assemblies 312.5.3 Assemblies by Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Interactions 332.5.4 Metal–Ligand Interactions 362.5.5 Other Methods for Construction Nanomaterials 392.6 Zero-Dimensional Nanomaterials 402.7 One-Dimensional Nanomaterials 422.8 Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials 472.9 Challenges in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 542.9.1 Challenges for Technological 542.9.2 Challenges and Research for the Social Cluster 542.9.3 The World Is Facing a Water Crisis 552.10 Applications of Nanoscience and Technology 592.10.1 Personal Care Products 592.10.2 Clays 602.10.3 Paints 602.10.4 Coatings and Surfaces 602.10.5 Renewable Energy 612.10.6 Batteries 612.10.7 Fuel Additives 612.10.8 Fuel Cells 622.10.9 Displays 622.10.10 Catalysts 622.10.11 Food 632.10.12 Consumer Products 632.10.13 Sports 632.10.14 Lubricants 642.10.15 Carbon Nanotube 642.10.16 Nanosensors 642.10.17 Magnetic Materials 662.10.18 Medical Implants 662.10.19 Machinable Ceramics 662.10.20 Elimination of Pollutants 672.10.21 Water Purification 672.10.22 Textiles 672.10.23 Military Battle Suits 682.11 Conclusion 68References 693 Carbon Nanotubes and Their Nanocomposites 75Sónia Simões, Filomena Viana, and Manuel F. Vieira3.1 Carbon Nanotubes 753.1.1 Introduction 753.1.2 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes 763.1.3 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 793.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Nanomaterials 813.2.1 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 813.2.2 Chemical Modifications of Carbon Nanotubes 863.2.3 Physical Modifications of Carbon Nanotubes 873.3 Carbon Nanotubes Based Nanocomposites 893.3.1 Interfacial Interaction of Carbon Nanotubes in Nanocomposites 963.4 Conclusion 100Acknowledgments 101References 1014 Graphene and Graphene Sheets Based Nanocomposites 107Anish Khan, Aftab Aslam Parwaz Khan, and AbdullahM. Asiri4.1 Introduction 1074.1.1 Structure of Graphene and Graphene Sheets 1074.1.2 Properties of Graphene and Graphene Sheets 1104.1.2.1 Electronic Properties 1104.1.2.2 Mechanical Properties 1104.1.2.3 Optical Properties 1114.1.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene 1124.1.3 Synthesis of Graphene and Graphene Sheets 1124.1.3.1 Exfoliation 1134.1.3.2 Epitaxial on Silicon Carbide 1164.1.3.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition 1164.1.3.4 Chemical Synthesis 1184.1.4 Chemical Modifications of Graphene and Graphene Sheets 1184.1.5 Physical Modifications of Graphene and Graphene Sheets 1204.2 Graphene and Graphene Sheets Based Nanocomposites 1214.2.1 Graphene and Graphene Sheets/Rubber Based Nanocomposites Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 1234.2.2 Graphene and Graphene Sheets/Thermoplastic Based Nanocomposites Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 1274.2.3 Graphene and Graphene Sheets/Thermoset Based Nanocomposites Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 1294.2.3.1 Characterization of GO, PI, and PI/GO Nanocomposites 1304.2.4 Interfacial Interaction of Graphene and Graphene Sheets in Nanocomposites 1334.3 Graphene and Graphene Sheets inThermoplastic Based Blends Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 1354.4 Graphene and Graphene Sheets in Rubber–Rubber Blends Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 1384.5 Graphene and Graphene Sheets Based Micro and Macro Composites 1434.6 Conclusion 144References 1455 Nanocomposites of Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS) and Their Applications 151Dhorali Gnanasekaran5.1 Introduction 1515.1.1 Nanocomposites 1515.1.2 How Nanocomposites Work? 1545.1.3 Applications 1545.1.4 Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS) 1545.1.5 Hybrid Properties 1565.1.6 Polymer Nanocomposites 1575.1.7 Hybrid Nanocomposites from Silsesquioxane Monomers 1595.1.7.1 Polyamide-POSS Hybrid Nanocomposites 1595.1.7.2 Poly(urethane-imide) POSS Hybrid Nanocomposites (PUI-POSS) 1655.1.8 Range of Other POSS Nanocomposites 1705.1.8.1 Blends of POSS Nanocomposites 1715.1.8.2 Bridged Polysilsesquioxanes 1735.2 Advantages of POSS Nanocomposites 1745.3 Applications 1755.3.1 Gas Separation Studies 1755.3.2 Aerospace Industry 1755.3.3 Electric Applications 1775.3.4 Other Applications 1785.4 Conclusions 179References 1796 Zeolites and Composites 187G. Gnana kumar6.1 Introduction 1876.2 Progress of Zeolite Materials 1896.2.1 Natural Zeolites 1896.2.2 Artificially Synthesized Zeolites 1906.2.3 Low-Silica Zeolites 1906.2.4 High-Silica Zeolites 1906.3 Classification of Zeolites 1916.3.1 Classification Based on the Pore Structure 1916.3.1.1 Microporous Zeolites 1916.3.1.2 Mesoporous Zeolites 1916.3.2 Classification Based on Structural Building Units 1926.3.2.1 Primary Building Unit (PBU) 1926.3.2.2 Secondary Building Unit (SBU) 1926.3.2.3 Sodalite Cage Building Units 1926.3.3 Classification Based on the Ring Structure 1936.3.4 Classification Based on Si/Al Ratio 1936.3.5 Classification of Zeolites Based on the Crystal Structure 1946.4 Molecular Sieves 1946.5 Synthesis of Zeolites 1976.5.1 History of Zeolite Synthesis 1976.5.2 Conventional Synthesis Approaches 1976.5.2.1 Hydrothermal Synthesis 1976.5.2.2 Solvothermal Synthesis 1986.5.3 Green Approaches 1996.5.3.1 Ionothermal Synthesis 1996.5.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis 1996.5.4 Recent Synthesis Approaches 2006.5.4.1 Dry Gel Conversion 2006.5.4.2 Synthesis of Zeolites under Microgravity Environment 2016.5.5 Droplet-Based Synthesis Method 2016.5.5.1 Microemulsion-Based Synthesis 2016.5.5.2 Droplet-Microfluid Synthesis 2026.5.6 Other Synthesis Approaches 2026.5.6.1 Seed-Induced Synthesis 2026.5.6.2 Centrifugation-Assisted Grinding 2036.5.7 Zeolite Composites 2036.5.7.1 Ex situ Composite Formation 2036.5.7.2 In situ Composite Formation 2046.6 Properties 2046.6.1 Physical Properties 2046.6.1.1 Thermal Properties 2046.6.1.2 Hydrophobicity 2056.6.1.3 Optical Properties 2056.6.1.4 Electrical Properties 2056.6.1.5 Magnetic Properties 2066.6.1.6 Pore Properties 2066.6.2 Chemical Properties 2066.6.2.1 Basicity 2066.6.2.2 Adsorption 2076.6.2.3 Ion-Exchange 2076.7 Applications 2086.7.1 Fuel Cells 2086.7.2 Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 2096.7.3 Batteries 2106.7.4 Oil Refining 2116.7.5 Photocatalysts 2126.7.6 Hydrogen (H2) Storage 2136.7.7 CO2 Capture 2146.8 Future Perspectives of Zeolites and Their Composites 2146.9 Conclusion 216References 2167 Mesoporous Materials and Their Nanocomposites 223Vijay K. Tomer, Sunita Devi, Ritu Malik, and Surender Duhan7.1 Introduction of Mesoporous Materials 2237.2 IUPAC Classification of Porous Materials 2247.3 Synthesis Pathways for the Formation of Mesoporous Materials 2257.4 Role of Structure Directing Agents/Surfactants 2257.4.1 Lyotropic Liquid Crystals (LLCs) 2277.5 Type of Surfactants 2297.5.1 Charged Surfactant Template 2297.5.2 Neutral Surfactant Templates 2307.6 Role of Templates 2317.6.1 Soft Templates 2317.6.2 Hard Templates 2317.7 Types of Mesoporous Materials: Structure and Properties 2327.7.1 Mesoporous Silica 2327.7.1.1 M41S Materials 2337.7.1.2 SBA-X Materials 2357.7.2 Mesoporous Metal Oxides 2377.7.3 Mesoporous Carbon 2387.7.4 Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Mesoporous Materials 2407.7.4.1 Inorganic Support Material: Silica 2417.8 Chemical Modification of Mesoporous Materials: Functionalization 2437.8.1 Grafting Method 2437.8.2 Co-condensation Method 2447.9 Mesoporous Silica/Polymer Nanocomposites 2447.10 Mesoporous Carbon/Polymer Nanocomposites 2477.11 Mesoporous Silica/Metal (Oxides) Nanocomposites 2487.12 Applications 2487.12.1 Drug Delivery 2487.12.2 Adsorption 2497.12.3 Catalysis 2497.12.4 Sensors 2507.13 Conclusion and Outlook 250References 2528 Bio-based Nanomaterials and Their Bionanocomposites 255Dipali R. Bagal-Kestwal, Rakesh M. Kestwal, and Been H. Chiang8.1 Introduction for Bio-based Nanomaterials 2558.2 Cellulose 2568.2.1 Structure and Properties of Cellulose 2578.2.1.1 Biological Function of Cellulose 2588.2.1.2 Industrial Application of Cellulose 2598.2.2 Origin of Cellulose 2598.2.3 Cellulose Nanomaterials 2608.2.3.1 Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 2618.2.3.2 Synthesis and Isolation of Cellulose Nanoparticles 2618.2.3.3 Characterization and Properties of Nanocellulose 2638.2.4 Cellulose Nanocomposites 2708.2.4.1 Nanocomposites Preparations 2718.2.4.2 NWNanocomposites 2728.2.4.3 NFC Nanocompostites 2758.2.4.4 Characterization and Applications of Nanocomposites 2768.3 Chitin/Chitosan 2768.3.1 Structure and Properties of Chitin/Chitosan 2778.3.1.1 Physico-Chemical Properties of Chitin/Chitosan 2788.3.1.2 Biological Properties of Chitin/Chitosan 2788.3.1.3 Applications of Chitin/Chitosan 2788.3.2 Origin of Chitin/Chitosan 2798.3.3 Chitin Nanomaterials: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 2798.3.4 Chitin Nanocomposites: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 2828.4 Starch 2878.4.1 Structure and Properties of Starch 2878.4.2 Origin of Starch 2878.4.3 Starch Nanoparticles: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 2888.4.3.1 Emulsion/Homogenization 2898.4.3.2 Nanoprecipitation 2898.4.3.3 Acid Hydrolysis 2908.4.3.4 Ultrasonication 2908.4.3.5 Schiff Base Reaction 2908.4.3.6 Starch Nanocrystals (StNCs) 2908.4.3.7 Preparation of StNCs 2918.4.3.8 Applications of Starch Nanoparticles 2928.4.4 Starch Nanocomposites (StNCs): Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 2938.5 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) 2948.5.1 Structure and Properties of SPI 2958.5.2 Origin of Soy Protein Isolate 2958.5.3 SPI Nanomaterials: Preparations, Characterization, and Applications 2958.5.4 SPI Nanocomposites: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 2978.6 Casein (CAS) 2998.6.1 Structure and Properties of Casein Nanomaterials 2998.6.2 Origin of Casein 3008.6.3 Casein Nanomaterials: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 3018.6.3.1 Casein Nanosized Micelles/Nanocapsules 3018.6.3.2 Casein Nanogels 3028.6.3.3 Casein-Polyelectrolyte Complex Nanoparticles 3028.6.3.4 Characterization of Nanoparticles 3038.6.4 Casein Nanocomposites: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 3048.7 Alginates 3078.7.1 Structure and Properties 3078.7.2 Origin of Alginates 3088.7.3 Alginates Nanomaterials: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 3088.7.4 Alginates Nanocomposites: Preparation, Characterization, and Applications 3098.8 Other Polymers 3128.8.1 Gelatin/Collagen 3128.8.2 Whey Protein 3138.9 Conclusions 313List of abbreviations 315References 3169 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) and Its Composites 331Ali Morsali and Lida Hashemi9.1 Composites 3329.1.1 MOF-Organic Matrix Composites 3329.1.2 MOF-Inorganic Matrix Composites 3349.1.3 Composites of MOFs with Graphite Oxide 3359.1.4 Composites of MOFs with Functionalized Graphite 3389.1.5 Composites of MOFs with Carbon Nanotubes 3419.1.6 Composites of MOFs with Polymers 3459.1.6.1 Hybrids of MIL-101 and Phosphotungstic Acid (MIL101/PTA) 3479.1.6.2 Reaction Catalysis by MIL-101 and MIL101/PTA Composites 3489.1.7 Composites of MOFs with Mesoporous Silica and Alumina 3519.1.8 Composites of MOFs with Metal Nanoparticles 3589.1.9 Composites of MOFs with Silk 360References 36510 Modeling Methods for Modulus of Polymer/Carbon nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposites 367Yasser Zare and Hamid Garmabi10.1 Introduction 36710.2 Results and Discussion 36910.2.1 Molecular Modeling 36910.2.1.1 Molecular Dynamics (MD) 36910.2.1.2 Molecular Mechanics (MM) 36910.2.2 Continuum Methods 36910.2.2.1 Computational Continuum Modeling 37010.2.2.2 Micromechanics Models 37110.2.3 Multiscale Techniques 38010.3 Conclusions and Future Challenges 383References 38311 Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose, Hemicelluloses, and Lignin 391Diana Elena Ciolacu and Raluca Nicoleta Darie11.1 Introduction 39111.2 Cellulose 39211.2.1 Morphology and Structural Aspects of Cellulose 39211.2.2 Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose Nanoparticles (CNs) 39511.2.2.1 Nanofibrillated Cellulose (NFC) 39511.2.2.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs) 39911.2.2.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 40211.2.3 Cellulose Nanocomposites 40211.2.4 Applications of Nanocellulose 40411.3 Hemicellulose 40511.3.1 Methods for the Isolation of Hemicellulose 40611.3.2 Preparation of Nanoparticles from Hemicelluloses 40811.3.3 Hemicellulose Nanocomposites 40911.4 Lignin 41011.4.1 Procedures for Lignin Isolation and Their Properties 41011.4.2 Lignin-based Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites 41111.4.3 Applications of Nanomaterials Containing Lignin 41311.5 Risk Assessment of Nanoparticles and Nanomaterials 41411.6 Future Perspectives and Conclusions 415References 416Index 425