Meimei Wang, Ph.D. (2019), Utrecht University, is a research fellow of Chinese modern economic history at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. She has published many articles on education in China, including Spatial-economic development: The effect of urbanization on education in China, 1890-present (Routledge, 2020). Bas van Leeuwen, Ph.D. (2007), Utrecht University, is a senior researcher at the International Institute of Social History. He has published many articles on education, global history, and China. Jieli Li, BA, is an assistant researcher at the International Institute of Social History. She has published various articles on education and income, including Education since 1820 (OECD, 2014).

• List of Figures and TablesReigns of Emperors in the Late Qing DynastyChinese Terms1 Developments in China’s Education System1.1 Introduction1.2 The Education System during the Qing1.3 Modernization of Education1.4 The Education System of New China2 Quantifying the Enrolment in Education2.1 Literacy and Attainment2.2 Enrolment during the Qing Dynasty2.3 The Modern Education System3 Curriculum and Teaching3.1 Traditional Education3.2 Modernizing Education3.3 Educational Curriculums in New China4 Female Education4.1 Female Education in Qing China up to the 1860s4.2 Modernization of Education and Female Participation from the 1860s to the 1920s4.3 Solidification of Female Education after the 1910s4.4 Continuing Expansion of Female Education in New China5 Education and Social Status5.1 Traditional Education in China5.2 Changing Social Backgrounds of Students in Modern Education5.3 Changes in Social Backgrounds of Students in New China6 Effect of Education on the Chinese Economy6.1 Economic Theories on Education6.2 Chinese Experiences under the Traditional Education System6.3 The Limited Effect of Modern Education on the Chinese Economy during the Early Stage of Educational Modernization6.4 Regional Differences of the Effect of Modern Education on Economic Development6.5 Educational Change in New China and Its Effect on Chinese EconomyAppendicesAppendix A: Educational Attainment by County, ca. 1930–1950Appendix B: Enrollment Ratio by County and Sex, ca. 1870–1930Appendix C: Enrollment Ratio in Primary Education (excluding Sishu) in Zhejiang 1927, Anhui 1932, Jiangxi 1932, Guangdong 1934, Taiwan 1946, and Zhili 1928Appendix D: Share Girls in Total Students in Modern (excluding Sishu) Primary Schools in Zhejiang 1927, Jiangxi 1932, Guangdong 1934, Fujian 1930, and Zhili 1928Appendix E: Duration of Education ca. 1930–1950Appendix F: Family Background StudentsAppendix G: Education by OccupationAppendix H: Age Difference in Marriage by Level of EducationAppendix I: Literacy by Age Class ca 1940Appendix J: Attainment versus LiteracyAppendix K: Literacy versus Various IndicatorsAppendix L: Teacher WagesAppendix M: Teacher Wages by County, ca. 1930Appendix N: Subjective Income Quantile by Level of Education, 1995–2013Appendix O: Number of Teachers by Selected Counties ca. 1920Appendix P: The Number of Students by Province and Education Level in 1930Appendix Q: Ratio of Girls Enrollment in Modern (excluding Sishu) Education, ca. 1930Appendix R: The Number of Students by Province and Year in New China, 1950–2010Appendix S: Female Students by Level of Education, Province and Year in New China, 1985–2010Appendix T: Main Changes in Provincial Boundaries Changes since 1920Appendix U: Central Government Expenses on Education, 1936–2010Appendix V: Average Years of Modern Education in the Population aged 15 Years and Older by Province, 1922–2009BibliographyIndex