Greg Kennedy – författare

Visar alla böcker från författaren Greg Kennedy. Handla med fri frakt och snabb leverans.

46 produkter

Kategorier

46 produkter

Imperial Defence
The Old World Order, 1856–1956
AvGreg Kennedy
Inbunden, Engelska, 2007
2 561 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This new collection of essays, from leading British and Canadian scholars, presents an excellent insight into the strategic thinking of the British Empire. It defines the main areas of the strategic decision-making process that was known as 'Imperial Defence'. The theme is one of imperial defence and defence of empire, so chapters will be historiographical in nature, discussing the major features of each key component of imperial defence, areas of agreement and disagreement in the existing literature on critical interpretations, introducing key individuals and positions and commenting on the appropriateness of existing studies, as well as identifying a raft of new directions for future research.
British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000
Influences and Actions
AvGreg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2015
764 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This new collection of essays by a panel of established international scholars sheds new light on what some of those influences were and what actions were taken as a result of Britain's Far Eastern commitments. Not only are new evidence and approaches to those issues addressed presented, but new avenues for further research are clearly outlined. This new study shows how the use of the sea as a means of projecting power and influence beyond national borders holds a unique place in the history of Great Britain. Directly linked to the concepts of empire, great power and strategic over-stretch, Britain's strategic position east of Suez in the twentieth century was a dominant area of interest and had an enormous impact in the overall construction of Great Britain's naval strategic posture.Britain's global naval position was in fact predominantly formed by Far Eastern strategic influences from 1900 to 1945. After that, even in the face of the Cold War and emphasis on planning for a third European war, strategic influences east of Suez continued to play a major role in the creation of Britain's naval force structure and in its global strategic foreign policy formulation process.
Imperial Defence
The Old World Order, 1856–1956
AvGreg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2014
868 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This new collection of essays, from leading British and Canadian scholars, presents an excellent insight into the strategic thinking of the British Empire. It defines the main areas of the strategic decision-making process that was known as 'Imperial Defence'. The theme is one of imperial defence and defence of empire, so chapters will be historiographical in nature, discussing the major features of each key component of imperial defence, areas of agreement and disagreement in the existing literature on critical interpretations, introducing key individuals and positions and commenting on the appropriateness of existing studies, as well as identifying a raft of new directions for future research.
Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939
Imperial Crossroads
AvGreg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2014
928 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This volume charts how the national strategic needs of the United States of America and Great Britain created a "parallel but not joint" relationship towards the Far East as the crisis in that region evolved from 1933-39. In short, it is a look at the relationship shared between the two nations with respect to accommodating one another on certain strategic and diplomatic issues so that they could become more confident of one another in any potential showdowns with Japan.
Defense Engagement Since 1900
Global Lessons in Soft Power
AvGreg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2020
421 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
There is more to defense than military might and more to the military than a fighting force. At a moment of global upheaval, domestic turmoil, and political uncertainty, this timely volume seeks to define and reframe the terms of defense engagement - the use of military capabilities to exert soft power (influence) as opposed to hard power (military force). Defense Engagement since 1900 is a work of applied military history that brings lessons of the past to bear on current issues. In a number of case studies spanning the twentieth century and the globe, the authors explore various dimensions of defense engagement. Their work, which attempts to recast the role of a state's military from wielder of force to employer of power, is squarely aimed at tackling the causes of designated security threats and not merely managing their consequences.The chapters, by scholars and practitioners representing diverse points of view, focus primarily on the British experience - perhaps the most extensive example of the use of military power in a nonmartial fashion in pursuit of policy goals. However, the chapters also consider events in the United States, Canada, Japan, the Middle East, and Africa. Intelligence, diplomacy, deterrence, alliances, coalitions, and networks: all are within the authors' scope as they address the need to use a wide range of attributes and capabilities associated with military power in various contemporary conflicts and national security strategies. The understanding their work provides will prove critically important to strategic thinkers of our day, as democratic states increasingly contend with hybrid, subthreshold, and Gray Zone warfare.
Defense Engagement since 1900
Global Lessons in Soft Power
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2020
436 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
There is more to defense than military might and more to the military than a fighting force. At a moment of global upheaval, domestic turmoil, and political uncertainty, this timely volume seeks to define and reframe the terms of defense engagement—the use of military capabilities to exert soft power (influence) as opposed to hard power (military force). Defense Engagement since 1900 is a work of applied military history that brings lessons of the past to bear on current issues. In a number of case studies spanning the twentieth century and the globe, the authors explore various dimensions of defense engagement. Their work, which attempts to recast the role of a stateâ€™s military from wielder of force to employer of power, is squarely aimed at tackling the causes of designated security threats and not merely managing their consequences.The chapters, by scholars and practitioners representing diverse points of view, focus primarily on the British experience—perhaps the most extensive example of the use of military power in a nonmartial fashion in pursuit of policy goals. However, the chapters also consider events in the United States, Canada, Japan, the Middle East, and Africa. Intelligence, diplomacy, deterrence, alliances, coalitions, and networks: all are within the authors’ scope as they address the need to use a wide range of attributes and capabilities associated with military power in various contemporary conflicts and national security strategies. The understanding their work provides will prove critically important to strategic thinkers of our day, as democratic states increasingly contend with hybrid, subthreshold, and Gray Zone warfare.
Far-flung Lines
Studies in Imperial Defence in Honour of Donald Mackenzie Schurman
AvGreg Kennedy,Keith Neilson
Häftad, Engelska, 1996
1 032 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
These studies show how the British Empire used its maritime supremacy to construct and maintain a worldwide defence for its imperial interests. They rebut the idea that British defence policy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was primarily concerned with the balance of power in Europe.
Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950
AvGreg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2000
943 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Merchant navies represent economic and industrial strength. This study revises the definition of maritime power through a more comprehensive understanding and appreciation for the roles played by the merchant marine of a nation.
Far-flung Lines
Studies in Imperial Defence in Honour of Donald Mackenzie Schurman
AvGreg Kennedy,Keith Neilson
Inbunden, Engelska, 1996
3 192 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
These studies show how the British Empire used its maritime supremacy to construct and maintain a worldwide defence for its imperial interests. They rebut the idea that British defence policy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was primarily concerned with the balance of power in Europe.
Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950
AvGreg Kennedy
Inbunden, Engelska, 2000
2 799 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
Merchant navies represent economic and industrial strength. This study revises the definition of maritime power through a more comprehensive understanding and appreciation for the roles played by the merchant marine of a nation.
Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939
Imperial Crossroads
AvGreg Kennedy
Inbunden, Engelska, 2002
2 561 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This volume charts how the national strategic needs of the United States of America and Great Britain created a "parallel but not joint" relationship towards the Far East as the crisis in that region evolved from 1933-39. In short, it is a look at the relationship shared between the two nations with respect to accommodating one another on certain strategic and diplomatic issues so that they could become more confident of one another in any potential showdowns with Japan.
British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000
Influences and Actions
AvGreg Kennedy
Inbunden, Engelska, 2004
2 561 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This new collection of essays by a panel of established international scholars sheds new light on what some of those influences were and what actions were taken as a result of Britain's Far Eastern commitments. Not only are new evidence and approaches to those issues addressed presented, but new avenues for further research are clearly outlined. This new study shows how the use of the sea as a means of projecting power and influence beyond national borders holds a unique place in the history of Great Britain. Directly linked to the concepts of empire, great power and strategic over-stretch, Britain's strategic position east of Suez in the twentieth century was a dominant area of interest and had an enormous impact in the overall construction of Great Britain's naval strategic posture.Britain's global naval position was in fact predominantly formed by Far Eastern strategic influences from 1900 to 1945. After that, even in the face of the Cold War and emphasis on planning for a third European war, strategic influences east of Suez continued to play a major role in the creation of Britain's naval force structure and in its global strategic foreign policy formulation process.
British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856�1956
Essays in Honour of David French
AvKeith Neilson,Greg Kennedy
Inbunden, Engelska, 2010
3 192 kr
Skickas inom 5-8 vardagar
In his groundbreaking book The British Way in Warfare (Routledge, 1990), David French outlined the skillful combination of maritime, economic and diplomatic power employed by Britain to achieve its international goals. Almost two decades later, this collection offers a reassessment of French's thesis, using it as a lens through which to explore Britain's relationship with various kinds of power (military and civil) and how this was employed across the globe. In particular, each essay addresses the ways in which the use of power manifested itself in the maintenance of Britain's place within the international system between 1856 and 1956. Adopting twin methodologies, the collection firstly addresses the broad question of Britain's relationship with other Great Powers and how these influenced the strategies used, before then testing these with specific case studies. By taking this approach, it is possible to discern which policies were successful and which failed, and whether these remained constant across time and space. Measuring Britain's strategy against her commercial, imperial, and military competitors (including France, the USA, Italy, Germany, and Russia) allows intriguing conclusions to be drawn about just how an essentially maritime power could compete with much larger - and potentially more powerful - continental rivals. With contributions from an outstanding selection of military scholars, this collection addresses fundamental questions about the intersection of military, economic and diplomatic history, that are as relevant today as they were during the height of Britain's imperial power. It will prove essential reading, not only for those with an interest in British military history, but for anyone wishing to understand how power - in all its multifaceted guises - can be employed for national advantage on the international stage.
Power and the Maritime Domain
A Global Dialogue
AvWilliam de Sousa Moreira,Greg Kennedy
E-bok
PDF, Engelska, 2022
686 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This book offers a multi-disciplinary and multi-national approach to defining key elements required to define power within the maritime domain.
The volume engages with the concept that the maritime domain is a multi-dimensional space embracing oceans, seas, waterways, including all elements of maritime power, related activities, infrastructure, resources and assets. It illustrates the complexity and interconnectivity of the factors that contribute to the appreciation, creation, and application of maritime power. In practical terms, the book highlights that the maritime domain is a continuum that interconnects countries, cultures, politics, economics, trade, environment, knowledge, and technological power globally. Perhaps most importantly, the maritime domain generates power of its own volition, as well as acting as a critical enabler for the creation of other types of nations power: economic, political, military, technological, intelligence and fiscal power, in particular. The book not only brings those various factors to the reader’s attention but, in the synthesis, also clarifies the connections between the various elements in creating a greater maritime whole.
This book will be of great interest to students of maritime security, strategic studies and International Relations.
Power and the Maritime Domain
A Global Dialogue
AvWilliam de Sousa Moreira,Greg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2022
686 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This book offers a multi-disciplinary and multi-national approach to defining key elements required to define power within the maritime domain.
The volume engages with the concept that the maritime domain is a multi-dimensional space embracing oceans, seas, waterways, including all elements of maritime power, related activities, infrastructure, resources and assets. It illustrates the complexity and interconnectivity of the factors that contribute to the appreciation, creation, and application of maritime power. In practical terms, the book highlights that the maritime domain is a continuum that interconnects countries, cultures, politics, economics, trade, environment, knowledge, and technological power globally. Perhaps most importantly, the maritime domain generates power of its own volition, as well as acting as a critical enabler for the creation of other types of nations power: economic, political, military, technological, intelligence and fiscal power, in particular. The book not only brings those various factors to the reader’s attention but, in the synthesis, also clarifies the connections between the various elements in creating a greater maritime whole.
This book will be of great interest to students of maritime security, strategic studies and International Relations.
Power and the Maritime Domain
A Global Dialogue
AvGreg Kennedy,William de Sousa Moreira
Inbunden, Engelska, 2022
1 943 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book offers a multi-disciplinary and multi-national approach to defining key elements required to define power within the maritime domain. The volume engages with the concept that the maritime domain is a multi-dimensional space embracing oceans, seas, waterways, including all elements of maritime power, related activities, infrastructure, resources and assets. It illustrates the complexity and interconnectivity of the factors that contribute to the appreciation, creation, and application of maritime power. In practical terms, the book highlights that the maritime domain is a continuum that interconnects countries, cultures, politics, economics, trade, environment, knowledge, and technological power globally. Perhaps most importantly, the maritime domain generates power of its own volition, as well as acting as a critical enabler for the creation of other types of nations power: economic, political, military, technological, intelligence and fiscal power, in particular. The book not only brings those various factors to the reader’s attention but, in the synthesis, also clarifies the connections between the various elements in creating a greater maritime whole. This book will be of great interest to students of maritime security, strategic studies and International Relations.
Power and the Maritime Domain
A Global Dialogue
AvGreg Kennedy,William de Sousa Moreira
Häftad, Engelska, 2024
660 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
This book offers a multi-disciplinary and multi-national approach to defining key elements required to define power within the maritime domain. The volume engages with the concept that the maritime domain is a multi-dimensional space embracing oceans, seas, waterways, including all elements of maritime power, related activities, infrastructure, resources and assets. It illustrates the complexity and interconnectivity of the factors that contribute to the appreciation, creation, and application of maritime power. In practical terms, the book highlights that the maritime domain is a continuum that interconnects countries, cultures, politics, economics, trade, environment, knowledge, and technological power globally. Perhaps most importantly, the maritime domain generates power of its own volition, as well as acting as a critical enabler for the creation of other types of nations power: economic, political, military, technological, intelligence and fiscal power, in particular. The book not only brings those various factors to the reader’s attention but, in the synthesis, also clarifies the connections between the various elements in creating a greater maritime whole. This book will be of great interest to students of maritime security, strategic studies and International Relations.
British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856�1956
Essays in Honour of David French
AvKeith Neilson,Greg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2024
660 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
In his groundbreaking book The British Way in Warfare (Routledge, 1990), David French outlined the skillful combination of maritime, economic and diplomatic power employed by Britain to achieve its international goals. Almost two decades later, this collection offers a reassessment of French's thesis, using it as a lens through which to explore Britain's relationship with various kinds of power (military and civil) and how this was employed across the globe. In particular, each essay addresses the ways in which the use of power manifested itself in the maintenance of Britain's place within the international system between 1856 and 1956. Adopting twin methodologies, the collection firstly addresses the broad question of Britain's relationship with other Great Powers and how these influenced the strategies used, before then testing these with specific case studies. By taking this approach, it is possible to discern which policies were successful and which failed, and whether these remained constant across time and space. Measuring Britain's strategy against her commercial, imperial, and military competitors (including France, the USA, Italy, Germany, and Russia) allows intriguing conclusions to be drawn about just how an essentially maritime power could compete with much larger - and potentially more powerful - continental rivals. With contributions from an outstanding selection of military scholars, this collection addresses fundamental questions about the intersection of military, economic and diplomatic history, that are as relevant today as they were during the height of Britain's imperial power. It will prove essential reading, not only for those with an interest in British military history, but for anyone wishing to understand how power - in all its multifaceted guises - can be employed for national advantage on the international stage.
Imperial Defence
The Old World Order, 1856–1956
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2007
983 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This new collection of essays, from leading British and Canadian scholars, presents an excellent insight into the strategic thinking of the British Empire.
It defines the main areas of the strategic decision-making process that was known as ''Imperial Defence''. The theme is one of imperial defence and defence of empire, so chapters will be historiographical in nature, discussing the major features of each key component of imperial defence, areas of agreement and disagreement in the existing literature on critical interpretations, introducing key individuals and positions and commenting on the appropriateness of existing studies, as well as identifying a raft of new directions for future research.
Imperial Defence
The Old World Order, 1856–1956
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
PDF, Engelska, 2007
983 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This new collection of essays, from leading British and Canadian scholars, presents an excellent insight into the strategic thinking of the British Empire.
It defines the main areas of the strategic decision-making process that was known as ''Imperial Defence''. The theme is one of imperial defence and defence of empire, so chapters will be historiographical in nature, discussing the major features of each key component of imperial defence, areas of agreement and disagreement in the existing literature on critical interpretations, introducing key individuals and positions and commenting on the appropriateness of existing studies, as well as identifying a raft of new directions for future research.
Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
PDF, Engelska, 2014
1 099 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
Merchant navies represent economic and industrial strength. This study revises the definition of maritime power through a more comprehensive understanding and appreciation for the roles played by the merchant marine of a nation.
Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2014
1 088 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
Merchant navies represent economic and industrial strength. This study revises the definition of maritime power through a more comprehensive understanding and appreciation for the roles played by the merchant marine of a nation.
British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000
Influences and Actions
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2004
890 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This new collection of essays by a panel of established international scholars sheds new light on what some of those influences were and what actions were taken as a result of Britain''s Far Eastern commitments. Not only are new evidence and approaches to those issues addressed presented, but new avenues for further research are clearly outlined.
Far-flung Lines
Studies in Imperial Defence in Honour of Donald Mackenzie Schurman
AvKeith Neilson,Greg Kennedy
E-bok
PDF, Engelska, 2013
1 204 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
These studies show how the British Empire used its maritime supremacy to construct and maintain a worldwide defence for its imperial interests. They rebut the idea that British defence policy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was primarily concerned with the balance of power in Europe.
Far-flung Lines
Studies in Imperial Defence in Honour of Donald Mackenzie Schurman
AvKeith Neilson,Greg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2013
1 204 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
These studies show how the British Empire used its maritime supremacy to construct and maintain a worldwide defence for its imperial interests. They rebut the idea that British defence policy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was primarily concerned with the balance of power in Europe.
Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939
Imperial Crossroads
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
PDF, Engelska, 2013
1 082 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This volume charts how the national strategic needs of the United States of America and Great Britain created a "parallel but not joint" relationship towards the Far East as the crisis in that region evolved from 1933-39. In short, it is a look at the relationship shared between the two nations with respect to accommodating one another on certain strategic and diplomatic issues so that they could become more confident of one another in any potential showdowns with Japan.
Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939
Imperial Crossroads
AvGreg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2013
1 082 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
This volume charts how the national strategic needs of the United States of America and Great Britain created a "parallel but not joint" relationship towards the Far East as the crisis in that region evolved from 1933-39. In short, it is a look at the relationship shared between the two nations with respect to accommodating one another on certain strategic and diplomatic issues so that they could become more confident of one another in any potential showdowns with Japan.
British Propaganda and Wars of Empire
Influencing Friend and Foe 1900–2010
AvChristopher Tuck,Greg Kennedy
Häftad, Engelska, 2017
883 kr
Skickas inom 10-15 vardagar
In order to provide a better understanding of the shifting nature of influence, this volume looks at how the British government employed various forms of persuasion to achieve its goals across the twentieth century. The collection provides a range of case studies to assess how effectively - or ineffectively - influence was brought to bear on an array of non-western societies. This volume will be of interest not only to historians, but to anyone interested in the operation of influence as a foreign policy tool.
British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856,1956
Essays in Honour of David French
AvKeith Neilson,Greg Kennedy
E-bok
Engelska, 2016
768 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
In his groundbreaking book The British Way in Warfare (Routledge, 1990), David French outlined the skillful combination of maritime, economic and diplomatic power employed by Britain to achieve its international goals. Almost two decades later, this collection offers a reassessment of French''s thesis, using it as a lens through which to explore Britain''s relationship with various kinds of power (military and civil) and how this was employed across the globe. In particular, each essay addresses the ways in which the use of power manifested itself in the maintenance of Britain''s place within the international system between 1856 and 1956. Adopting twin methodologies, the collection firstly addresses the broad question of Britain''s relationship with other Great Powers and how these influenced the strategies used, before then testing these with specific case studies. By taking this approach, it is possible to discern which policies were successful and which failed, and whether these remained constant across time and space. Measuring Britain''s strategy against her commercial, imperial, and military competitors (including France, the USA, Italy, Germany, and Russia) allows intriguing conclusions to be drawn about just how an essentially maritime power could compete with much larger - and potentially more powerful - continental rivals. With contributions from an outstanding selection of military scholars, this collection addresses fundamental questions about the intersection of military, economic and diplomatic history, that are as relevant today as they were during the height of Britain''s imperial power. It will prove essential reading, not only for those with an interest in British military history, but for anyone wishing to understand how power - in all its multifaceted guises - can be employed for national advantage on the international stage.
British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856,1956
Essays in Honour of David French
AvKeith Neilson,Greg Kennedy
E-bok
PDF, Engelska, 2016
760 kr
Läs direkt efter köp
In his groundbreaking book The British Way in Warfare (Routledge, 1990), David French outlined the skillful combination of maritime, economic and diplomatic power employed by Britain to achieve its international goals. Almost two decades later, this collection offers a reassessment of French''s thesis, using it as a lens through which to explore Britain''s relationship with various kinds of power (military and civil) and how this was employed across the globe. In particular, each essay addresses the ways in which the use of power manifested itself in the maintenance of Britain''s place within the international system between 1856 and 1956. Adopting twin methodologies, the collection firstly addresses the broad question of Britain''s relationship with other Great Powers and how these influenced the strategies used, before then testing these with specific case studies. By taking this approach, it is possible to discern which policies were successful and which failed, and whether these remained constant across time and space. Measuring Britain''s strategy against her commercial, imperial, and military competitors (including France, the USA, Italy, Germany, and Russia) allows intriguing conclusions to be drawn about just how an essentially maritime power could compete with much larger - and potentially more powerful - continental rivals. With contributions from an outstanding selection of military scholars, this collection addresses fundamental questions about the intersection of military, economic and diplomatic history, that are as relevant today as they were during the height of Britain''s imperial power. It will prove essential reading, not only for those with an interest in British military history, but for anyone wishing to understand how power - in all its multifaceted guises - can be employed for national advantage on the international stage.

Greg Kennedy – författare

Imperial Defence

British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000

Imperial Defence

Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939

Defense Engagement Since 1900

Defense Engagement since 1900

Far-flung Lines

Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950

Far-flung Lines

Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950

Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939

British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000

British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856�1956

Power and the Maritime Domain

Power and the Maritime Domain

Power and the Maritime Domain

Power and the Maritime Domain

British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856�1956

Imperial Defence

Imperial Defence

Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950

Merchant Marine in International Affairs, 1850-1950

British Naval Strategy East of Suez, 1900-2000

Far-flung Lines

Far-flung Lines

Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939

Anglo-American Strategic Relations and the Far East, 1933-1939

British Propaganda and Wars of Empire

British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856,1956

British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856,1956