Ludwig Reimer – författare

The aim of this monograph is to outline the physics of image formation, electron–specimen interactions, and image interpretation in transmission el- tron microscopy. Since the last edition, transmission electron microscopy has undergone a rapid evolution. The introduction of monochromators and - proved energy ?lters has allowed electron energy-loss spectra with an energy resolution down to about 0.1 eV to be obtained, and aberration correctors are now available that push the point-to-point resolution limit down below 0.1 nm. After the untimely death of Ludwig Reimer, Dr. Koelsch from Springer- Verlag asked me if I would be willing to prepare a new edition of the book. As it had served me as a reference for more than 20 years, I agreed without hesitation. Distinct from more specialized books on speci?c topics and from books intended for classroom teaching, the Reimer book starts with the basic principles and gives a broad survey of the state-of-the-art methods, comp- mented by a list of references to allow the reader to ?nd further details in the literature. The main objective of this revised edition was therefore to include the new developments but leave the character of the book intact. The presentation of the material follows the format of the previous e- tion as outlined in the preface to that volume, which immediately follows. A few derivations have been modi?ed to correspond more closely to modern textbooks on quantum mechanics, scattering theory, or solid state physics.

The aim of this monograph is to outline the physics of image formation, electron–specimen interactions, and image interpretation in transmission el- tron microscopy. Since the last edition, transmission electron microscopy has undergone a rapid evolution. The introduction of monochromators and - proved energy ?lters has allowed electron energy-loss spectra with an energy resolution down to about 0.1 eV to be obtained, and aberration correctors are now available that push the point-to-point resolution limit down below 0.1 nm. After the untimely death of Ludwig Reimer, Dr. Koelsch from Springer- Verlag asked me if I would be willing to prepare a new edition of the book. As it had served me as a reference for more than 20 years, I agreed without hesitation. Distinct from more specialized books on speci?c topics and from books intended for classroom teaching, the Reimer book starts with the basic principles and gives a broad survey of the state-of-the-art methods, comp- mented by a list of references to allow the reader to ?nd further details in the literature. The main objective of this revised edition was therefore to include the new developments but leave the character of the book intact. The presentation of the material follows the format of the previous e- tion as outlined in the preface to that volume, which immediately follows. A few derivations have been modi?ed to correspond more closely to modern textbooks on quantum mechanics, scattering theory, or solid state physics.

The aim of this monograph is to outline the physics of image formation, electron–specimen interactions, and image interpretation in transmission el- tron microscopy. Since the last edition, transmission electron microscopy has undergone a rapid evolution. The introduction of monochromators and - proved energy ?lters has allowed electron energy-loss spectra with an energy resolution down to about 0.1 eV to be obtained, and aberration correctors are now available that push the point-to-point resolution limit down below 0.1 nm. After the untimely death of Ludwig Reimer, Dr. Koelsch from Springer- Verlag asked me if I would be willing to prepare a new edition of the book. As it had served me as a reference for more than 20 years, I agreed without hesitation. Distinct from more specialized books on speci?c topics and from books intended for classroom teaching, the Reimer book starts with the basic principles and gives a broad survey of the state-of-the-art methods, comp- mented by a list of references to allow the reader to ?nd further details in the literature. The main objective of this revised edition was therefore to include the new developments but leave the character of the book intact. The presentation of the material follows the format of the previous e- tion as outlined in the preface to that volume, which immediately follows. A few derivations have been modi?ed to correspond more closely to modern textbooks on quantum mechanics, scattering theory, or solid state physics.

Scanning Electron Microscopy provides a description of the physics of electron-probe formation and of electron-specimen interactions. The different imaging and analytical modes using secondary and backscattered electrons, electron-beam-induced currents, X-ray and Auger electrons, electron channelling effects, and cathodoluminescence are discussed to evaluate specific contrasts and to obtain quantitative information.

Energy-Filtering Transmission Electron Microscopy (EFTEM) presents a summary of the electron optics, the electron-specimen interactions, and the operation and contrast modes of this new field of analytical electron microscopy. The electron optics of filter lenses and the progress in the correction of aberrations are discussed in detail. An evaluation of our present knowledge of plasmon losses and inner-shell ionisations is of increasing interest for a quantitative application of EFTEM in materials and life sciences. This can be realized not only by filtering the elastically scattered electrons but mainly by imgaging and analyzing with inelastically scattered electrons at different energy losses up to 2000 eV. The strength of EFTEM is the combination of the modes EELS, ESI, ESD and REM.

Scanning Electron Microscopy provides a description of the physics of electron-probe formation and of electron-specimen interactions. The different imaging and analytical modes using secondary and backscattered electrons, electron-beam-induced currents, X-ray and Auger electrons, electron channelling effects, and cathodoluminescence are discussed to evaluate specific contrasts and to obtain quantitative information.

Scanning Electron Microscopy provides a description of the physics of electron-probe formation and of electron-specimen interactions. The different imaging and analytical modes using secondary and backscattered electrons, electron-beam-induced currents, X-ray and Auger electrons, electron channelling effects, and cathodoluminescence are discussed to evaluate specific contrasts and to obtain quantitative information.

Das vorliegende Buch wendet sich an den ständig zunehmenden Kreis der elektronenmikroskopisch arbeitenden Wissenschaftler und soll ein~ Übersicht über den augenblicklichen Stand der elektronenmikroskopi­ schen Untersuchungs- und Präparationstechnik vermitteln. Die Präparation muß speziell auf die physikalischen Eigenarten der elektronenmikroskopischen Bildentstehung abgestimmt werden. Wäh­ rend bei technischen und physikalischen Problemen die Oberflächen­ abdruckmethode bevorzugt zur Anwendung kommt, dominiert auf dem biologischen Sektor die Dünnschnitt-Technik. Man sollte jedoch nicht dazu neigen, nur die Fortschritte auf einem dieser Gebiete zu verfolgen. Es zeigen sich viele gemeinsame Gesichtspunkte, die auf beiden An­ wendungsgebieten zur Verbesserung der Präparation ausgenutzt werden können. So ist es z. B. möglich, anorganische Pulver oder Metalle in Plexiglas einzubetten und mit Diamantmessern zu schneiden oder organische Objekte als Ergänzung mit elektronenmikroskopischen Ober­ flächenabdrücken zu untersuchen. Das Buch soll deshalb eine allgemeine Einführung in die wichtigsten Präparationsverfahren geben. Dabei wird auch vor allem das Artefakt­ problem an zahlreichen Beispielen diskutiert. Artefakte sind am besten zu vermeiden, wenn man mehrere voneinander unabhängige Methoden anwendet. Das Buch möchte daher auch Anregungen in dieser Richtung vermitteln. In diesem Zusammenhang sei auch bemerkt, daß man die Elektronenmikroskopie nicht als Selbstzweck betreiben, sondern als ein Hilfsmittel der Forschung unter vielen anderen anwenden sollte.

The aim of this book is to outline the physics of image formation, electron­ specimen interactions and image interpretation in transmission electron mic­ roscopy. The book evolved from lectures delivered at the University of Munster and is a revised version of the first part of my earlier book Elek­ tronenmikroskopische Untersuchungs- und Priiparationsmethoden, omitting the part which describes specimen-preparation methods. In the introductory chapter, the different types of electron microscope are compared, the various electron-specimen interactions and their applications are summarized and the most important aspects of high-resolution, analytical and high-voltage electron microscopy are discussed. The optics of electron lenses is discussed in Chapter 2 in order to bring out electron-lens properties that are important for an understanding of the function of an electron microscope. In Chapter 3, the wave optics of elec­ trons and the phase shifts by electrostatic and magnetic fields are introduced; Fresnel electron diffraction is treated using Huygens'' principle. The recogni­ tion that the Fraunhofer-diffraction pattern is the Fourier transform of the wave amplitude behind a specimen is important because the influence of the imaging process on the contrast transfer of spatial frequencies can be described by introducing phase shifts and envelopes in the Fourier plane. In Chapter 4, the elements of an electron-optical column are described: the electron gun, the condenser and the imaging system. A thorough understanding of electron-specimen interactions is essential to explain image contrast.

The aim of this book is to outline the physics of image formation, electron­ specimen interactions, imaging modes, the interpretation of micrographs and the use of quantitative modes "in scanning electron microscopy (SEM). lt forms a counterpart to Transmission Electron Microscopy (Vol. 36 of this Springer Series in Optical Sciences) . The book evolved from lectures delivered at the University of Münster and from a German text entitled Raster-Elektronenmikroskopie (Springer-Verlag), published in collaboration with my colleague Gerhard Pfefferkorn. In the introductory chapter, the principles of the SEM and of electron­ specimen interactions are described, the most important imaging modes and their associated contrast are summarized, and general aspects of eiemental analysis by x-ray and Auger electron emission are discussed. The electron gun and electron optics are discussed in Chap. 2 in order to show how an electron probe of small diameter can be formed, how the elec­ tron beam can be blanked at high frequencies for time-resolving exper­ iments and what problems have tobe taken into account when focusing.

Energy-Filtering Transmission Electron Microscopy (EFTEM) presents a summary of the electron optics, the electron-specimen interactions, and the operation and contrast modes of this new field of analytical electron microscopy. The electron optics of filter lenses and the progress in the correction of aberrations are discussed in detail. An evaluation of our present knowledge of plasmon losses and inner-shell ionisations is of increasing interest for a quantitative application of EFTEM in materials and life sciences. This can be realized not only by filtering the elastically scattered electrons but mainly by imgaging and analyzing with inelastically scattered electrons at different energy losses up to 2000 eV. The strength of EFTEM is the combination of the modes EELS, ESI, ESD and REM.

Transmission Electron Microscopy presents the theory of image and contrast formation, and the analytical modes in transmission electron microscopy. The principles of particle and wave optics of electrons are described. Electron-specimen interactions are discussed for evaluating the theory of scattering and phase contrast. Also discussed are the kinematic and dynamical theories of electron diffraction and their applications for crystal-structure analysis and imaging of lattices and their defects. X-ray micronanalysis and electron energy-loss spectroscopy are treated as analytical methods. This fourth edition includes discussions of recent progress, especially in the area of Schottky emission guns, convergent-beam electron diffraction, electron tomography, holography and the high resolution of crystal lattices.

"Transmission Electron Microscopy" presents the theory ofimage and contrastformation, and the analytical modes intransmission electron microscopy. Theprinciples of particleand wave optics of electrons are described.Electron-specimen interactions are discussed for evaluatingthe theory of scattering and phase contrast. Also analysedare the kinetical and dynamical theories of electrondiffraction and their applications for crystal-structuredetermination and imaging of lattices and their defects.X-ray microanalysis and electron energy-loss spectroscopyare treated as analytical methods. The third editionincludes a brief discussionof Schottky emission guns, someclarification of minor details, and references to the recentliterature.

The aim of this book is to present the theory of image and contrast formation and the analytical modes in transmission electron microscopy. The principles of particle and wave optics of electrons are described. Electron-specimen interactions are discussed for evaluating the theory of scattering and phase contrast. Also discussed are the kinematical and dynamical theories of electron diffraction and their applications for crystal structure determination and imaging of lattice defects. X-ray microanalysis and energy-loss spectroscopy are treated as analytical methods. The second edition includes discussion of recent progress, especially in the areas of energy-loss spectroscopy, crystal-lattice imaging and reflection electron microscopy.

Unter Epitaxie versteht man das orientierte Aufwachsen dünner Schichten auf einer kristallinen Unterlage. Im Idealfall erreicht man einkristalline Schichten, welche die Kristallorientierung der Unterlage fortsetzen. Bei der Aufdampf­ methode muß man in der Regel erhöhte Temperaturen der Unterlage während des Aufdampfprozesses anwenden, um Epitaxie zu erreichen. In vielen Fällen spielen auch Adsorptionsschichten auf den kristallinen Unterlagen eine Rolle. Zum Bei­ spiel wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Epitaxie von Eisenschichten auf Stein­ salz-Spaltflächen durch den H 0-Partialdruck begünstigt. 2 Das praktische Interesse an einkristallinen Schichten beruht darauf, daß deren physikalische Eigenschaften besser mit denen des kompakten Materials zu ver­ gleichen sind als polykristalline Schichten mit regelloser Kristallorientierung, die man beim Aufdampfen auf amorpher Unterlage (Glas oder Kunststoff-Folien) er­ hält. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sind die Bedingungen untersucht, unter denen ein­ kristalline Wismut- und Eisen-Aufdampfschichten zu erhalten sind. Wismut zeigt wegen seiner Grenzstellung zwischen Metallen und Halbleitern einen relativ großen Hall-Effekt, der außerdem sehr anisotrop ist und in Abhängigkeit von der Orientierung das Vorzeichen wechseln kann. Den hohen Hall-Koeffizienten kann man zur Messung magnetischer Felder mit Hall-Sonden ausnutzen. Um den Ein­ fluß einer abnehmenden Schichtdicke auf den Hall-Effekt zu untersuchen, war es erwünscht, auch Messungen an einkristallinen Schichten verschiedener Orien­ tierung durchzuführen. Ein positives Vorzeichen des Hall-Effektes ist zu erwarten, wenn die (lll)-Ebene parallel zur Schicht liegt und das transversale Magnetfeld in Richtung der trigonalen Achse zeigt. Derartig orientierteSchichten konnten durch Epitaxie auf Glimmer-Spaltflächen erhalten werden.