Rebecca Shapiro – författare

Legal professionals in the United States increasingly have relied on dictionaries, both current and historical, in court cases. This practice is complicated because originalist jurists are often not well-versed in lexicographical principles that would provide a fuller view of historical reasoning. This Element first contextualizes several issues in early English dictionaries and eighteenth-century language that illustrate how using dictionaries from the founding era in questions of law can be problematic: The Element provides examples of words changing over time, explains methodology of devising and borrowing in definitions, details who the readers of such dictionaries were, and more. The Element then excerpts John Mikhail's essential article written in response to CREW et al. v. Trump to show how lexicographical methods and linguistic textual evidence can be better used in legal cases and analysis by triangulating meaning and identifying a prototypical definition.

Legal professionals in the United States increasingly have relied on dictionaries, both current and historical, in court cases. This practice is complicated because originalist jurists are often not well-versed in lexicographical principles that would provide a fuller view of historical reasoning. This Element first contextualizes several issues in early English dictionaries and eighteenth-century language that illustrate how using dictionaries from the founding era in questions of law can be problematic: The Element provides examples of words changing over time, explains methodology of devising and borrowing in definitions, details who the readers of such dictionaries were, and more. The Element then excerpts John Mikhail's essential article written in response to CREW et al. v. Trump to show how lexicographical methods and linguistic textual evidence can be better used in legal cases and analysis by triangulating meaning and identifying a prototypical definition.

We all think we know what a dictionary is for and how to use one, so most of us skip the first pages—the front matter—and go right to the words we wish to look up. Yet dictionary users have not always known how English “works” and my book reproduces and examines for the first time important texts in which seventeenth- and eighteenth-century dictionary authors explain choices and promote ideas to readers, their “end users.” Unlike French, Spanish, and Italian dictionaries compiled during this time and published by national academies, the goal of English dictionaries was usually not to “purify” the language, though some writers did attempt to regularize it. Instead, English lexicographers aimed to teach practical ways for their users to learn English, improve their language skills, even transcend their social class. The anthology strives to be comprehensive in its coverage of the first phase of this tradition from the early seventeenth century—from Robert Cawdrey’s (1604) A Table Alphabeticall, to Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language (1755), and finally, to Noah Webster’s An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). The book puts English dictionaries in historical, national, linguistic, literary, cultural contexts, presenting lexicographical trends and the change in the English language over two centuries, and examines how writers attempted to control it by appealing to various pedagogical and legal authorities. Moreover, the development of dictionary and attempts to codify English language and grammar coincided with the arc of the British Empire; the promulgation of “proper” English has been a subject of debate and inquiry for centuries and, in part, dictionaries and the teaching of English historically have been used to present and support ideas about what is correct, regardless of how and where English is actually used. The authors who wrote these texts apply ideas about capitalism, nationalism, sex and social status to favor one language theory over another. I show how dictionaries are not neutral documents: they challenge or promote biases. The book presents and analyzes the history of lexicography, demonstrating how and why dictionaries evolved into the reference books we now often take for granted and we can see that there is no easy answer to the question of “who owns English.”

We all think we know what a dictionary is for and how to use one, so most of us skip the first pages—the front matter—and go right to the words we wish to look up. Yet dictionary users have not always known how English “works” and my book reproduces and examines for the first time important texts in which seventeenth- and eighteenth-century dictionary authors explain choices and promote ideas to readers, their “end users.” Unlike French, Spanish, and Italian dictionaries compiled during this time and published by national academies, the goal of English dictionaries was usually not to “purify” the language, though some writers did attempt to regularize it. Instead, English lexicographers aimed to teach practical ways for their users to learn English, improve their language skills, even transcend their social class. The anthology strives to be comprehensive in its coverage of the first phase of this tradition from the early seventeenth century—from Robert Cawdrey’s (1604) A Table Alphabeticall, to Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language (1755), and finally, to Noah Webster’s An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). The book puts English dictionaries in historical, national, linguistic, literary, cultural contexts, presenting lexicographical trends and the change in the English language over two centuries, and examines how writers attempted to control it by appealing to various pedagogical and legal authorities. Moreover, the development of dictionary and attempts to codify English language and grammar coincided with the arc of the British Empire; the promulgation of “proper” English has been a subject of debate and inquiry for centuries and, in part, dictionaries and the teaching of English historically have been used to present and support ideas about what is correct, regardless of how and where English is actually used. The authors who wrote these texts apply ideas about capitalism, nationalism, sex and social status to favor one language theory over another. I show how dictionaries are not neutral documents: they challenge or promote biases. The book presents and analyzes the history of lexicography, demonstrating how and why dictionaries evolved into the reference books we now often take for granted and we can see that there is no easy answer to the question of “who owns English.”

A special edition flipbook featuring two of Ash and Pikachu'sadventures in Galar and Alola.This special edition is two books inone! Join Ash, Pikachu and friends on action-packed adventuresin both the Alola and Galarregions. The beloved Trainer and his team take on foes new andold with some amazing Pokémon by their sides. Black and white pictures throughout.Perfect for old and new fans of Pokémon.Features engaging stories great for emerging readers. Also in the series: The Secret of Zygarde / A Legendary Truth (PokémonSuper Special Flip Book 2: Kalos Region / Unova Region) The Power of Three / Ancient Pokémon Attack (PokémonSuper Special Flip Book 3: Sinnoh Region / Hoenn Region) Ash Ketchum, Pokémon Detective / I Choose You!(Pokémon Super Special Flip Book 4: Johto Region / KantoRegion)

A special edition flipbook featuring two of Ash and Pikachu'sadventures in Kalos and Unova.This special edition is two books inone! Join Ash, Pikachu and friends on action-packed adventuresin both the Kalos and Unovaregions. The beloved Trainer and his team take on foes new andold with some amazing Pokémon by their sides. Black and white pictures throughout.Perfect for old and new fans of Pokémon.Features engaging stories great for emerging readers. Also in the series: Gigantamax Clash / Battle for the Z-Ring (Pokemon SuperSpecial Flip Book 1: Galar Region / Alola Region)The Power of Three / Ancient Pokémon Attack (PokémonSuper Special Flip Book 3: Sinnoh Region / Hoenn Region)Ash Ketchum, Pokémon Detective / I Choose You!(Pokémon Super Special Flip Book 4: Johto Region / KantoRegion)