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Öz Yilmaz has expanded his original volume on processing to include inversion and interpretation of seismic data. In addition to the developments in all aspects of conventional processing, this two- volume set represents a comprehensive and complete coverage of the modern trends in the seismic industry — from time to depth, from 3D to 4D, from 4D to 4C, and from isotropy to anisotropy.

The fourth edition of SEG’s best seller is a valuable, comprehensive reference that is a must for every geophysicist, geologist, explorationist, engineer, energy adviser, economist, editor, and student involved in the field. Hundreds of terms have been added since publication of the third edition in 1991, reflecting rapid evolution of the science, especially in the areas of engineering and production problems, 3D (including multicomponent) acquisition and processing, visualization, S- and converted waves, interpretation, anisotropy, AVO, geostatistics, geohazards, neural networks, tomography, downhole measurements, horizontal drilling, and deepwater work. Definitions of hundreds of other terms have been updated. The dictionary’s title has been modified slightly to reflect growth in application of geophysical methods, with the word Applied replacing the word Exploration. The dictionary includes a guide to pronunciation and a list of reference figures and tables. A CD containing the dictionary in searchable PDF format also is included.

Methods and Applications in Reservoir Geophysics (SEG Investigations in Geophysics No. 15) not only demonstrates the value of geophysics in reservoir management but also shows how to apply geophysical technologies more effectively in reservoir studies. The chapter editors have selected more than 40 papers from SEG and other journals and have added 13 new contributions. In the reservoir-engineering tutorial, geophysicists will discover a rich source of information on issues and data that are critically important to the engineer. In the geophysics tutorial, the engineer and the geophysicist will find explanations of the tools and data discussed in the book’s case studies. Each chapter then focuses on a different phase of field life: exploration appraisal, development planning, and production optimization. Geophysics is used in each of those stages to help address the critical technical issues and business decisions that the reservoir-management team faces. The case studies demonstrate the processes, methods, and techniques used in reservoir geophysics, not simply the results. The last chapter explores the road ahead and emerging technologies that define the future of reservoir geophysics. This book will be valuable for geophysicists, engineers, and all members of the reservoir-management team who want to ensure that the correct data are used to maximize reserves, optimize recovery, and contain costs.

Because most sedimentary rocks encountered in oil and gas exploration are effectively anisotropic, it is imperative to properly estimate seismic anisotropy and incorporate it into data-processing and imaging algorithms. Seismology of Azimuthally Anisotropic Media and Seismic Fracture Characterization (SEG Geophysical References Series No. 17) presents a systematic analysis of seismic signatures for azimuthally anisotropic media and describes anisotropic inversion/processing methods for wide-azimuth reflection data and VSP (vertical seismic profiling) surveys. The main focus is on kinematic parameter-estimation techniques operating with P-waves as well as with the combination of PP and PS (mode-converted) data. The part devoted to prestack amplitudes includes azimuthal AVO (amplitude variation with offset) analysis and a concise treatment of attenuation coefficients, which are highly sensitive to the presence of anisotropy. Discussion of fracture characterization is based on modern effective media theories and illustrates both the potential and limitations of seismic methods. Field-data examples highlight the improvements achieved by accounting for anisotropy in seismic processing, imaging, and fracture detection.

In his classic text, Seismic Prospecting for Oil, C. Hewitt Dix remarks that the correlation of one reflection record with another, that is, the interpretation of seismic data, is a procedure that “can hardly be described in words.” First Steps in Seismic Interpretation (Geophysical Monograph Series No. 16) is a book about fundamental concepts and practices of seismic interpretation that attempts to achieve such a description. Intended for beginning interpreters, this book approaches interpretation via synthesis of concepts and practical applications rather than through formal treatment of basic physics and geology. It is based on the author’s personal experience as a seismic interpreter and is organized along the lines of notes from interpretation classes that he designs and teaches.

Fundamentals of Gravity Exploration (Geophysical Monograph Series No. 17) covers a full range of gravity-exploration topics, including first principles, field instrumentation and operations, rock densities and density contrasts, data reduction, methods of interpretation, and geologic examples. The subject matter includes inversion and an appendix on the Fourier transform. This book will help students to efficiently gain knowledge and appreciation for the method, and it will provide experienced earth scientists with a valuable addition to their exploration libraries, both for reference and understanding of this important method.

Microseismic Imaging of Hydraulic Fracturing: Improved Engineering of Unconventional Shale Reservoirs (SEG Distinguished Instructor Series No. 17) covers the use of microseismic data to enhance engineering design of hydraulic fracturing and well completion. The book, which accompanies the 2014 SEG Distinguished Instructor Short Course, describes the design, acquisition, processing, and interpretation of an effective microseismic project. The text includes a tutorial of the basics of hydraulic fracturing, including the geologic and geomechanical factors that control fracture growth. In addition to practical issues associated with collecting and interpreting microseismic data, potential pitfalls and quality-control steps are discussed. Actual case studies are used to demonstrate engineering benefits and improved production through the use of microseismic monitoring. Providing a practical user guide for survey design, quality control, interpretation, and application of microseismic hydraulic fracture monitoring, this book will be of interest to geoscientists and engineers involved in development of unconventional reservoirs.

AVO (SEG Investigations in Geophysics No. 16) by Satinder Chopra and John Castagna begins with a brief discussion on the basics of seismic-wave propagation as it relates to AVO, followed by a discussion of the rock-physics foundation for AVO analysis including the use of Gassmann’s equations and fluid substitution. Then, the early seismic observations and how they led to the birth of AVO analysis are presented. The various approximations for the Zoeppritz equations are examined, and the assumptions and limitations of each approximation are clearly identified. A section on the factors that affect seismic amplitudes and a discussion of the processing considerations important for AVO analysis are included. A subsequent section explores the various techniques used in AVO interpretation. Finally, topics including the influence of anisotropy in AVO analysis, the use of AVO inversion, estimation of uncertainty in AVO analysis, converted-wave AVO, and the future of the AVO method are discussed. Equally helpful to new entrants into the field as well as to seasoned workers, AVO will provide readers with the most up-to-date knowledge on amplitude variation with offset.

Providing geophysicists with an in-depth understanding of the theoretical and applied background for the seismic diffraction method, Classical and Modern Diffraction Theory covers the history and foundations of the classical theory and the key elements of the modern diffraction theory. Chapters include an overview and a historical review of classical theory, a summary of the experimental results illustrating this theory, and key principles of the modern theory of diffraction; the early cornerstones of classical diffraction theory, starting from its inception in the 17th century and an extensive introduction to reprinted works of Grimaldi, Huygens, and Young; details of the classical theory of diffractions as developed in the 19th century and reprinted works of Fresnel, Green, Helmholtz, Kirchhoff, and Rayleigh; and the cornerstones of the modern theory including Keller’s geometrical theory of diffraction, boundary-layer theory, and super-resolution. Appendices on the Cornuspiral and Babinet’s principle also are included.

Exploration and characterization of conventional and unconventional reservoirs using seismic technologies are among the main activities of upstream technology groups and business units of oil and gas operators. However, these activities frequently encounter difficulties in quantitative seismic interpretation due to remaining confusion and new challenges in the fast developing field of seismic petrophysics. Seismic Petrophysics in Quantitative Interpretation shows how seismic interpretation can be made simple and robust by integration of the rock physics principles with seismic and petrophysical attributes bearing on the properties of both conventional (thickness, net/ gross, lithology, porosity, permeability, and saturation) and unconventional (thickness, lithology, organic richness, thermal maturity) reservoirs. Practical solutions to existing interpretation problems in rock physics-based amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis and inversion are addressed in the book to streamline the workflows in subsurface characterization. Although the book is aimed at oil and gas industry professionals and academics concerned with utilization of seismic data in petroleum exploration and production, it could also prove helpful for geotechnical and completion engineers and drillers seeking to better understand how seismic and sonic data can be more thoroughly utilized.

The scope of engineering seismology includes geotechnical site investigations for buildings and engineering infrastructures, such as dams, levees, bridges, and tunnels, landslide and active- fault investigations, seismic microzonation, and geophysical investigations of historic buildings. These projects require multidisciplinary participation by the geologist, geophysicist, and geotechnical and earthquake engineers. A key objective of this book (SEG Investigations in Geophysics Series No. 17) by Öz Yilmaz is to encourage the specialists from these disciplines to apply the seismic method to solve the many challenging engineering problems they face. The broader scope of engineering seismology also includes exploration of earth resources, including groundwater exploration, coal and mineral exploration, and geothermal exploration. While focusing on the application of the seismic method to geotechnical site investigations, this book includes many case studies in all of the applications of engineering seismology.

Elements of 3D Seismology, Third Edition is a thorough introduction to the acquisition, processing, and interpretation of 3D seismic data. This third edition is a major update of the second edition. Sections dealing with interpretation have been greatly revised in accordance with improved understanding and availability of data and software. Practice exercises have been added, as well as a 3D seismic survey predesign exercise. Discussions include: conceptual and historical foundations of modern reflection seismology; an overview of seismic wave phenomena in acoustic, elastic, and porous media; acquisition principles for land and marine seismic surveys; methods used to create 2D and 3D seismic images from field data; concepts of dip moveout, prestack migration, and depth migration; concepts and limitations of 3D seismic interpretation for structure, stratigraphy, and rock property estimation; and the interpretation role of attributes, impedance estimation, and AVO. This book is intended as a general text on reflection seismology, including wave propagation, data acquisition, processing, and interpretation, and it will be of interest to entry-level geophysicists, experts in related fields (geology, petroleum engineering), and experienced geophysicists in one subfield wishing to learn about another (e.g., interpreters wanting to learn about seismic waves or data acquisition).

This book describes the theory and practice of inverting seismic data for the subsurface rock properties of the earth. The primary application is for inverting reflection and/or transmission data from engineering or exploration surveys, but the methods described can also be used for earthquake studies. Seismic Inversion will be of benefit to scientists and advanced students in engineering, earth sciences, and physics. It is desirable that the reader has some familiarity with certain aspects of numerical computation, such as finite-difference solutions to partial differential equations, numerical linear algebra, and the basic physics of wave propagation. For those not familiar with the terminology and methods of seismic exploration, a brief introduction is provided. To truly understand the nuances of seismic inversion, we have to actively practice what we preach (or teach). Therefore, computational labs are provided for most of the chapters, and some field data labs are given as well.

Introduction to Petroleum Seismology, second edition (SEG Investigations in Geophysics Series No. 12) provides the theoretical and practical foundation for tackling present and future challenges of petroleum seismology especially those related to seismic survey designs, seismic data acquisition, seismic and EM modeling, seismic imaging, microseismicity, and reservoir characterization and monitoring. All of the chapters from the first edition have been improved and/or expanded. In addition, twelve new chapters have been added. These new chapters expand topics which were only alluded to in the first edition: sparsity representation, sparsity and nonlinear optimization, near-simultaneous multiple-shooting acquisition and processing, nonuniform wavefield sampling, automated modeling, elastic-electromagnetic mathematical equivalences, and microseismicity in the context of hydraulic fracturing. Another major modification in this edition is that each chapter contains analytical problems as well as computational problems. These problems include MatLab codes, which may help readers improve their understanding of and intuition about these materials. The comprehensiveness of this book makes it a suitable text for undergraduate and graduate courses that target geophysicists and engineers as well as a guide and reference work for researchers and professionals in academia and in the petroleum industry.

Over the past decade, microseismic monitoring, a technology used to evaluate the completions of wells drilled to produce hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs, has grown increasingly popular among oil and gas companies. Microseismic Monitoring, by Vladimir Grechka and Werner M. Heigl, presents a thorough description of how to process microseismic data and the underlying theory, of what can and cannot be inferred, and to what level of certainty. The layout of the book follows the passage of a seismic wave – from a source triggered by hydraulic stimulation, through hydrocarbon-bearing formations, towards motion sensors. The analysis of various approaches to harvesting the source-related information from microseismic records has singled out the accuracy of the velocity model as the most critical ingredient for the quality of microseismic deliverables and our understanding of the information contained in those. An accurate velocity model, fully accounting for the strong elastic anisotropy of hydraulically fractured shales, is a prerequisite for obtaining precise event hypocenters and interpretable seismic moment tensors. The ray theory complemented by its modern extensions, the paraxial ray tracing and Frechet ray tracing, provides the only practical means available today for building such models. This book was written for geophysicists interested in learning advanced microseismic data-processing techniques.

This book provides a foundation for understanding the vigorous and fascinating field of seismic processing. Written for the non-expert, this two-volume introductory text reveals the limitations and potential pitfalls of seismic data, prepares both seismic interpreters and acquisition specialists for working with seismic processing geophysicists, explains seismic processing operations as a series of solutions to problems, and demonstrates the dependence of a final interpretable seismic volume on its many seismic processing decisions. Although seismic processing is inherently mathematical, this text uses numerous illustrations and real data examples, providing an intuitive understanding of the seismic processing procedures, resorting to an algebra-based argument only on rare occasions. By starting with migration in the first volume and concluding with deconvolution in the second volume, this text presents seismic processing topics in a reversed order compared to a customary processing sequence. The reader will examine input requirements for algorithms and then be equipped to understand the processing flow algorithms themselves.

This second volume provides a foundation for understanding the vigorous, relevant, and fascinating field of seismic processing, addressing that portion which precedes migration. Written for the non-expert, this second volume of the two-volume introductory text reveals the limitations and potential pitfalls of seismic data, prepares both seismic interpreters and acquisition specialists for working with seismic processing geophysicists, explains seismic processing operations as a series of solutions to problems, and demonstrates the dependence of a final interpretable seismic volume on its many seismic processing decisions.Although seismic processing is inherently mathematical, this text uses numerous illustrations and real data examples, providing an intuitive understanding of the seismic processing procedures and resorting to an algebra-based argument only on rare occasions. The first volume starts with migration. This second volume addresses pre-migration processing. In combination, these two volumes present seismic processing topics in order reverse of a typical processing sequence. Through this reverse ordering, the reader understands an algorithm's input requirements, providing motivation for understanding the preceding algorithm in the processing sequence.

A rare personal account of a scientific journey, this memoir details one year of field operations in 1970–71, acquiring ice thickness data with radar, gravity measurements, and magnetometer measurements in Antarctica. Compiled from official logs, personal papers, and memories, Blizzards and Broken Grousers reminds us of the pioneering spirit of geophysics in the time when field operations reached the ends of the earth and exploration was not confined to offices and computer processing systems. This book provides a detailed account of the author’s Antarctic experience in a time before GPS, satellite communications, internet, and even links to Antarctica by air. Moreover, although it was not obvious at the time, the data collected from this work provide the underpinnings of the currently accepted theory on the movement of glacial icecaps, including models of ice behavior and the interaction of ice and climate that have been used extensively in assessments of future climate change.

Geoscientists and engineers are very comfortable using seismic data sets acquired with geophones, hydrophones, and accelerometers because we have a long, well-defined set of standards for acquiring, processing, and interpreting them. However, distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) seismic measurements are rapidly augmenting, and in some cases replacing, the data from these conventional tools. Technologists are frequently unaccustomed to using DAS seismic data sets since it directly acquires relative strain or strain rate measurements and not the more familiar pressure, displacement, velocity, and acceleration data. There are also acquisition parameter selections that must be made to optimize the acquired data to accomplish the purpose of the seismic survey. This book is designed to build an intuition and understanding of the value, limitations, and applications of DAS seismic technology.

As the size and complexity of data soars exponentially, machine learning (ML) has gained prominence in applications in geoscience and related fields. ML-powered technology increasingly rivals or surpasses human performance and fuels a large range of leading-edge research. This textbook teaches the underlying mathematics, terminology, and programmatic skills to implement, test, and apply ML to real-world problems. It builds the mathematical pillars required to thoroughly comprehend and master modern ML concepts and translates the newly gained mathematical understanding into better applied data science. Exercises with raw field data, including well logs and weather measurements, prepare and encourage the reader to begin using software to validate results and program their own creative data solutions. Most importantly, the reader always keeps an eye on ML's imperfect data situations as encountered in the real world.

Fluids in the pore space of rocks causes attenuation and dispersion by the mechanism broadly known as wave-induced fluid flow. Of particular interest to exploration geophysics is inelastic attenuation and dispersion of body waves (P- and S-waves). Understanding fluid-related dissipation in hydrocarbon reservoir rocks, combined with improved measurements of attenuation and/or dispersion from recorded seismic data, may be used to estimate the hydraulic properties of these rocks. Discussing macroscopic, mesoscopic, and local flow and including theoretical models and experimental evidence, this book presents a systematic treatment of attenuation and dispersion mechanisms relevant to seismic, sonic, and ultrasonic wave propagation.

This book presents the theory of machine learning (ML) algorithms and their applications to geoscience problems. Geoscience problems include traveltime picking of seismograms by a fuzzy cluster method; migration and inversion of seismic data by neural network (NN) methods; geochemical analysis and dating of rock samples by Gaussian discriminant analysis; convolutional neural network (CNN) picking of faults, cracks, and bird types in images; Bayesian inversion of seismic data; clustering of earthquake data and semblance plots; principal component analysis of seismic data and geochemical records; filtering of seismic sections; seismic interpolation by an NN; transformer analysis of seismic data; and recurrent NN deconvolution of a seismic trace. More than half of the described algorithms fall under the class of neural network methods. Their description is at a level that can be understood by anyone with a modest background in linear algebra, calculus, and probability. An elementary working knowledge of MATLAB is useful and almost every chapter is accompanied by lab exercises to reinforce the ML principles.

Seismic attributes are best illustrated through examples. Essentials of Seismic Attributes and Impedance Inversion is a comprehensive resource, extensively referenced and richly illustrated with more than 1,000 figures. These examples not only clarify theory, best practices, workflows, and case studies but also highlight common pitfalls in interpretation.

This is the third edition of Ilya Tsvankin’s reference volume on seismic anisotropy and application of anisotropic models in reflection seismology. Seismic Signatures and Analysis of Reflection Data in Anisotropic Media, (Geophysical References Series No. 19), provides essential background information about anisotropic wave propagation, introduces efficient notation for transversely isotropic (TI) and orthorhombic media, and identifies the key anisotropy parameters for imaging and amplitude analysis. To gain insight into the influence of anisotropy on a wide range of seismic signatures, exact solutions are simplified in the weak-anisotropy approximation. Particular attention is given to moveout analysis and P-wave time-domain processing for transverse isotropy with a vertical (VTI) and tilted (TTI) symmetry axis. Description of the amplitude-variation-with-offset (AVO) response of P- and S-waves in TI media shows that anisotropy may cause serious distortions in both the reflection coefficient and geometrical-spreading factor. The far-reaching benefits of anisotropic processing methods are demonstrated on synthetic examples and field data.

Since the first edition of 3D Seismic Survey Design appeared in 2002, seismic data acquisition has seen many changes, most of which have been captured in this second edition. This book by Gijs Vermeer describes in detail the properties of 3D acquisition geometries and shows how these properties naturally lead to the 3D symmetric sampling approach to 3D survey design. Many examples from the literature are used to illustrate good and less good choices of acquisition parameters. The link between survey parameters and noise suppression as well as imaging is an intrinsic part of the contents. This book should be of great interest to the designer of 3D seismic surveys, but also to every geophysicist who uses 3D seismic data to retrieve accurate information on the properties of the subsurface.

Remote Sensing in Action: The Curious Case of Sherlock Holmes and Albert Einstein (SEG Geophysical Monograph Series No. 18), by Enders A. Robinson and Dean Clark, questions a basic assumption of the scientific method — that new theories or experimental results are communicated effectively by traditional methods (e.g., presentations at professional meetings or publication in a peer-reviewed journal) — and suggests that the scientific method needs to be applied to the scientific method itself to find out if other styles of communication might work better. In a highly entertaining format, the book uses the enormously popular fictional characters created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle to unravel and explain the historical underpinnings of remote sensing. The extended appendices guarantee that all of the science of remote sensing is included in this book of “scientific fiction.” The story covers more than 2000 years, beginning with Pythagoras in ancient Greece and ending with Einstein’s first article on relativity in 1905. Light-years beyond a traditional science textbook, this detective story set in 1905 will teach students of all ages about the exciting journey of scientific discovery.

The use of diffraction imaging to complement the seismic reflection method is rapidly gaining momentum in the oil and gas industry. As the industry moves toward exploiting smaller and more complex conventional reservoirs and extensive new unconventional resource plays, the application of the seismic diffraction method to image sub-wavelength features such as small-scale faults, fractures and stratigraphic pinchouts is expected to increase dramatically over the next few years. Seismic Diffraction covers seismic diffraction theory, modeling, observation, and imaging. Papers and discussion include an overview of seismic diffractions, including classic papers which introduced the potential of diffraction phenomena in seismic processing; papers on the forward modeling of seismic diffractions, with an emphasis on the theoretical principles; papers which describe techniques for diffraction mathematical modeling as well as laboratory experiments for the physical modeling of diffractions; key papers dealing with the observation of seismic diffractions, in near-surface, reservoir, and crustal studies; and key papers on diffraction imaging.

The Handbook of Poststack Seismic Attributes is a general reference for poststack seismic attributes. It discusses their theory, meaning, computation, and application, with the goal of improving understanding so that seismic attributes can be applied more effectively. The chapters of the book build upon each other and progress from basic attributes to more involved methods. The book introduces the ideas that underlie seismic attributes and reviews their history from their origins to current developments. It examines attribute maps and interval statistics; complex trace attributes; 3D attributes that quantify aspects of geologic structure and stratigraphy, primarily dip, azimuth, curvature, reflection spacing, and parallelism; seismic discontinuity attributes derived through variances or differences; spectral decomposition, thin-bed analysis, and waveform classification; the two poststack methods that purportedly record rock properties — relative acoustic impedance through recursive inversion and Q estimation through spectral ratioing; and multiattribute analysis through volume blending, cross-plotting, principal component analysis, and unsupervised classification. The book ends with an overview of how seismic attributes aid data interpretation and discusses bright spots, frequency shadows, faults, channels, diapirs, and data reconnaissance. A glossary provides definitions of seismic attributes and methods, and appendices provide background mathematics. The book is intended for reflection seismologists engaged in petroleum exploration, including seismic data interpreters, data processors, researchers, and students.

3C seismic applications provide enhanced rock property characterization of the reservoir that can complement P-wave methods. Continued interest in converted P- to S-waves (PS-waves) and vertical seismic profiles (VSPs) has resulted in the steady development of advanced vector wavefield techniques. PS-wave images along with VSP data can be used to help P-wave interpretation of structure in gas- obscured zones, of elastic and fluid properties for lithology discrimination from S-wave impedance and density inversion in unconventional reservoirs, and of fracture characterization and stress monitoring from S-wave birefringence (splitting) analysis. The book, which accompanies the 2016 SEG Distinguished Instructor Short Course, presents an overview of 3C seismic theory and practical application: from fundamentals of PS-waves and VSPs, through to acquisition and processing including interpretation techniques. The emphasis is on unique aspects of vector wavefields, anisotropy, and the important relationships that unify S-waves and P-waves. Various applications and case studies demonstrate image benefits from PS-waves, elastic properties and fluid discrimination from joint inversion of amplitude variations with offset/angle (AVO/A), and VSP methods for anisotropic velocity model building and improved reservoir imaging. The book will be of interest to geophysicists, geologists, and engineers, especially those involved with or considering the use of AVO/A inversion, fracture/stress characterization analyses, or interpretation in gas-obscured reservoirs.