Religion and World Civilizations

Andrew P. Holt teaches history at Florida State College at Jacksonville and Norwich University, USA.

General readers will surely be happy with the very well-selected list of topics, presented in a readable manner with many pictures. Teachers and educators will be especially pleased with this encyclopedia.

• General Introduction: Religion and Its Influence on Human SocietiesChronologyVolume 1: Ancient and Early Medieval WorldsAncient Near Eastern CivilizationsAkhenaten’s Rejection of PolytheismBabylonian Astronomy and AstrologyBar Kokhba RevoltBuilding of the Anu Ziggurat in UrukBuilding of the Egyptian PyramidsBuilding of the First Temple on Mount Moriah—Solomon’s TempleBuilding of the Second Temple in JerusalemCanaanite Gods and GoddessesCanaanite TemplesCouncil of JamniaDevelopment of Synagogues as Centers of Jewish Religious LifeDevelopment of the Hebrew Palestinian CanonEgyptian Book of the DeadElevation of the Persian LanguageEpic of Gilgamesh and Mesopotamian ReligionEstablishment and Influence of the EssenesEstablishment of the AvestaEstablishment of the Kingdoms of Israel and JudahGreat Jewish RevoltHammurabi’s CodeHebrew Bible and SlaveryInfluence of ZoroastrianismMani and the Foundation of ManichaeismMesopotamian Creation StoryMesopotamian Flood NarrativesMesopotamian Magic and WitchcraftMesopotamian Religious Influences on the HebrewsOrigins of ZoroastrianismPossible Zoroastrian Influences on Judaism and ChristianityReign of King DavidReign of Sargon of AkkadReligion and Warfare in the Ancient Near EastReligious Significance of UrRevolt of the MaccabeesSassanian Religious LiteratureSaul as the First King of IsraelTemple Complexes at UrukZiggurats and TemplesZoroastrian Dualism and MonotheismAncient China and IndiaAjanta CavesAncient Chinese Oracle BonesAshoka and the Spread of BuddhismChandragupta II and the Rise of VaishnavismChinese Creation MythsCompilation of the Bhagavad GitaCompilation of the UpanishadsConfucianism as the State ReligionCreation of TaoismEmergence of Buddhism in China during the Han DynastyFounding of Buddhism by Siddhartha GautamaFourth Buddhist CouncilGreat Bath and the College of PriestsGreat Buddhist University at NalandaInfluence of the RigvedaKinnar in Ancient Indian Religious TextsLife and Influence of ConfuciusMahavira and the Foundations of JainismMandate of HeavenMythic Origins of the Caste SystemQin Dynasty and the Banning of ReligionSacred Cows in HinduismTheravada BuddhismThird Buddhist CouncilTomb of the First Emperor of the QinVedic Creation MythsVedic GodsVedic PriesthoodAncient GreeceClosure and Destruction of Ancient Greek Temples by Christian AuthoritiesCompilation of the SeptuagintCult of Alexander the GreatCult of Asklepios in EpidaurosCults of Foreign Gods in Ancient GreeceFunerary Customs and Festivals in Honor of the DeadGreek Language and the New TestamentGreek MythologyHellenic and Hellenistic Mystery ReligionsIliad and OdysseyOrigin and Influence of the Oracle of DelphiPlatonic Influences on ChristianityReligion in the Hellenistic WorldReligious Purposes and Functions of Greek TemplesReligious Significance and Purpose of the ParthenonReligious Significance of Panhellenic Athletic FestivalsReligious Significance of WineSacred WarsTrial of SocratesTwelve OlympiansWarfare and the Intervention of the GodsWorship of Minoan and Mycenaean Gods and GoddessesAncient RomeAugustus, Octavian, and the Establishment of the Cult of the EmperorBacchanaliaChristian PersecutionConversion of ConstantineCouncil of NicaeaDeification of Roman EmperorsEdict of MilanEstablishment of the Coptic ChurchEstablishment of the New Testament CanonFirst Use of the Title dominus et deus, Master and God, by the Emperor DomitianHaruspicesInfluence of the Bishop of RomeJerome’s Translation and Publication of the VulgateJesus, the Apostles, and the Origins of ChristianityJulius Caesar Declared parens patriae and Subsequently DeifiedMithraism in the Roman Empire and Its Possible Influences on Early ChristianityMystery Religions in Ancient RomeNicene Christianity Declared the State Religion of the Roman EmpireNuma Pompilius Establishes the Religious Institutions of RomePaganism in Ancient RomePantheon of Roman Gods and GoddessesPlebeians in Rome Eligible for Priesthood: Lex OgulniaReligion and the Roman HouseholdReligious Nature of StoicismReligious Role of the Vestal VirginsSexual Renunciation in Early ChristianitySol InvictusThracian Religion in the Roman WorldByzantiumBattle of ManzikertByzantine Conflicts with IslamByzantine Understandings of the Arab ConquestsByzantium and the First CrusadeCaesaropapism and PapocaesarismConquest of Jerusalem by the SassaniansConstantine I and the Founding of ConstantinopleCouncil of Chalcedon (451)Council of Constantinople (381)Council of Ephesus (431)Fall of Constantinople (1453)Founding of Mount AthosHagia IreneHagia SophiaIconoclasmJohn of Damascus and the Defense of Icon VenerationMassacre of Latin Christians in ConstantinopleOrigins of the Cult of the Virgin MaryPatriarch of ConstantinoplePentarchyPhotian Schism, 219Religious Concerns over Byzantine Games, 220Repairing the Schism between the Churches of Constantinople and RomeSack of ConstantinopleSassanian Conflict with the Byzantine EmpireSchism of 1054Third Samaritan RevoltThree Chapters ControversyVeneration and Production of IconsEarly Medieval Europe (500–1000)Battle of ToursBenedict of NursiaCarolingians and the PapacyCharlemagne and the Conversion of the SaxonsChristian Holy War before the CrusadesChristian Pilgrimage to 1000Conversion of Clovis to ChristianityConversion of the Lombards to ChristianityDonation of ConstantineFounding of the Holy Roman EmpireGregorian ChantMedieval Cathedral Architecture (300–1100)Medieval Papacy (500–1000)MerovingiansMonasticismMusic in Christian Thought and Practice (300–1000)Papacy of Gregory the GreatSignificance of RelicsViking ReligionVolume 2: Medieval and Early Modern WorldsMedieval Europe (1000–1450)Albigensian CrusadeChristianity and the Founding of Medieval UniversitiesChristian Pilgrimage from 1000 to 1500Christian Theology and the JewsChristian Views on ProstitutionCrusading and Religious ConversionCult of the Virgin Mary in the Middle AgesDevelopment of Canon LawEnglish Participation in the CrusadesExpulsion of the Jews from EnglandFounding and Influence of the Cluny MonasteryFounding and Influence of the Mendicant OrdersFourth Lateran CouncilGregorian ReformImpact of the Baltic CrusadesInvestiture ControversyItalian CrusadesJoan of Arc’s Impact on the Hundred Years’ WarJudaism in Medieval EuropeLatin Translations of the Qur’anMedieval Cathedral Architecture (1100–1500)Medieval Papacy (1000–1500)Muslims in Medieval EuropeOrigins of the Crusading MovementPeace and Truce of God MovementsPilgrimage in the Eleventh Century and the Origins of the Crusading MovementPrester John of the IndiesPunishment of HeresyReligious Music in the Middle Ages (1000–1500)Symbolism of Medieval LiturgyTheological Impact of the Writings of Thomas AquinasTheology of Thomas AquinasUnam Sanctam Proclaims Papal SupremacyMedieval Arab CivilizationAbbasid CaliphateArab Conquest of the Sassanian EmpireArab Conquests and the Spread of IslamArabic Language and the Qur’anCompilation of the Qur’anConcepts of Dar al-Harb and Dar al-IslamConstruction of the Dome of the RockDhimmi StatusFall of Baghdad and the End of the CaliphateHadithIslam and Arab Dietary LawsMecca-Medina WarMethodologies of Tazkiyat al-Nafs in SufismMuhammad and the Foundations of Islamic ReligionMuhammad and the Foundations of the Islamic StateMuhammad and the Unification of the Arab TribesOrigins and Impact of Zakat on Early Islamic SocietyOrigins and Influence of SufismOrigins of JihadRashidun CaliphateReligious Significance of the Holy Land to MuslimsSex and Medieval Islamic LawShariahSurvival of Zoroastrianism after the Arab ConquestUmayyad CaliphateMedieval Spain (300–1500)Camino de SantiagoConquest of GranadaConvivenciaCrusading Indulgences in Medieval IberiaExpulsion of the Jews from Spain and PortugalFounding of the Spanish Military OrdersGreat Mosque of CórdobaIgnatius Loyola and the Founding of the JesuitsIslamic Conquest of Spain (711)Life and Influence of Moses MaimonidesLife for Jews in Medieval SpainReconquistaSantiago Matamoros (the Moor Slayer)Spain and the Discovery of the New WorldSpanish InquisitionToledo School of TranslatorsCrusader States (1098–1291)Apocalypticism and the Crusader StatesBanking and the TemplarsByzantine–Crusader Split at the Siege of Antioch (1098)Church of the Holy SepulchreConquest of Jerusalem (1099)Conversion of the Hospitallers to a Military OrderEcclesiastical Councils and the CrusadesFall of Acre (1291)Fall of Edessa (1144)Fall of Jerusalem (1187)Founding of the Knights TemplarHospital of JerusalemLaw in the Crusader StatesLife for Jews in the Crusader StatesLife for Muslims in the Crusader StatesMissionary EffortsMuslim and Christian FriendshipPilgrimage and Pilgrimage SitesRelations with Non-Latin Christians, Muslims, and JewsRelations with the Byzantine EmpireReligious Architecture in the Crusader StatesReligious Art in the Crusader StatesReligious Significance of the Holy Land to Latin ChristiansMedieval Asian CivilizationsApplication of Shariah in IndiaArrival and Spread of Sufism in Medieval IndiaArrival of Buddhism in ChinaBuddhism and the Development of Printing in ChinaChinese Buddhist Pilgrims to IndiaEllora Caves at MaharashtraEstablishment of the Sultanate of DelhiGenghis Khan and Religious TolerationGenghis Khan’s Religious BeliefsGuru Nanak and the Foundation of SikhismImpact of Indian Religion on Mainland Southeast AsiaImpact of Indian Religion on the Island Societies of Southeast AsiaImperial Repression of Buddhism in ChinaIslam in Sri LankaJainism in Medieval IndiaMedieval Religious Temples in IndiaMongol Impact on Dar al-IslamMuslim Views of Medieval Hindu Religious PracticesNestorian Influences on the MongolsNestorianism in Medieval IndiaOrigin and Early Influence of the Bhakti MovementReligious Significance of the Mogao Caves of DunhuangReligious Toleration in the Gupta EmpireSati in Medieval IndiaSpread of Islam in IndonesiaSufi Influences on Music in Medieval IndiaTarmashirin Khan’s Conversion to IslamUzbek Khan’s Conversion to IslamWomen and Medieval HinduismWomen and Religion in Medieval East AsiaZoroastrianism in Medieval Central AsiaMedieval Africa (300–1500)African Traditional ReligionCathedral of Maryam Seyon and the Ark of the CovenantCoptic Christianity in the Middle AgesCrusading in North Africa, 219Ethiopian Orthodoxy’s “Judaic Rites,"Ezana of Axum’s Conversion to ChristianityFrumentius and the Conversion of EthiopiaGarima GospelsHypatia’s Murder in AlexandriaIbn Tumart Establishes the Almohad Movement and DynastyImpact of Christianity on African ArtIslam and the Ghana EmpireIslam in Medieval EthiopiaKebra NagastMissionary Efforts of the Nine SaintsMyth of King Solomon and the Queen of ShebaRock-Cut Churches of EthiopiaSabbatarian ControversySpread of Christianity in North AfricaMedieval Central and Eastern EuropeBogomil Heresy First Appears in BulgariaBoris of Bulgaria Converts to ChristianityDanish Crusades against Pagan EstoniaFoundation of the Rila MonasteryFoundation of the Sázava AbbeyGniezno SummitImpact of the Baltic Crusades on North European PaganismJogaila and the Conversion of Lithuania to ChristianityKing Stephen and the Conversion of HungaryMieszko I and the Conversion of Poland to ChristianityMission of Cyril and Methodius to MoraviaMoscow as the Third RomeSlavic Paganism in Medieval Eastern EuropeSurvival of Thracian Religion in Southeast EuropeSynod of SplitVladimir the Great’s Christianization of the Kievan Rus’Seljuk and Ottoman CivilizationsAbolition of the Ottoman CaliphateArmenian GenocideCollapse of the Ottoman EmpireConquests of Alp ArslanDefeat of the Ottomans at the Second Siege of Vienna (1683)Establishment and Influence of the Seljuk Sultanate of RumEstablishment of the Ottoman CaliphateEstablishment of the Secular Republic of TurkeyFounding and Influence of the National Vision Movement on Modern TurkeyGhazisJanissariesJews under Ottoman RuleJihad, World War I, and the Ottoman EmpireMillet SystemOttoman Conquest of the Byzantine EmpireOttoman EmpireOttoman Religious ArchitecturePre-Islamic Turkish ReligionSeljuk Conflict with Shiite Fatimid EgyptSeljuk EmpireSeljuk Invasion of Asia Minor (Eleventh Century)Sultan Ahmed MosqueTurkification and Islamization of Asia MinorMajor Pre-Columbian CivilizationsAztec Cult of Huitzilopochtli and the Foundation of TenochtitlánAztec Pantheon of GodsConquest of the Aztec EmpireDeath of Huayna Capac and the Largest Known Number of Inka Human SacrificesDoña Marina’s Conversion to Christianity and the Conquest of the AztecsFlower WarsInka MummificationInka Pantheon of GodsMaya Bloodletting RitualsMaya Pantheon of GodsReligion and Warfare in Pre-Columbian SocietiesScale of Aztec Human SacrificeSpiritual Reasons for Aztec Human SacrificeWomen and the Inka ReligionWomen and the Maya ReligionVolume 3: Early Modern and Modern WorldsEarly Modern Europe (1450–1750)Anabaptist Promotion of the Separation of Church and StateAugsburg ConfessionCatholic and Counter ReformationsChristian Inspirations of the Great ComposersCopernicus’s Publication of De revolutionibus orbium coelestiumCouncil of TrentCriticism of Religion during the EnlightenmentDivine Right of KingsEdict of NantesEuropean Witch CrazeExpulsion of the MoriscosFrench Wars of ReligionGalileo Forced to Recant His TheoriesHenry VIII and the Founding of the Church of EnglandImpact of the Printing Press on the Protestant ReformationJohn Calvin and the Spread of CalvinismMartin Luther and the Origins of the ReformationMartin Luther on Holy War against the TurksPeace of WestphaliaResettlement of the Jews in EnglandThirty Years’ WarVincent de Paul and His Charitable LegacyWomen and the Protestant ReformationEarly North America (to 1865)American Jewish Views of Slavery and AbolitionBarbary Pirates War and U.S. Views of IslamCharles G. Finney and the Revivalism MovementChristian AbolitionistsChristianity and the Founding FathersEarly Missionary Efforts to Convert Native AmericansFirst AmendmentFounding of MarylandFounding of MormonismFounding of PennsylvaniaFrench Protestant Settlements in Sixteenth-Century FloridaGreat AwakeningGreat DisappointmentJesuit Missionaries in CanadaJohn Brown’s Holy War against SlaveryNative American ReligionProtestant Work EthicQuakers and AbolitionQuakers and the Role of Women in the ChurchReligion and the American Civil WarReligious Origins of Manifest DestinyReligious Vision of TenskwatawaRise of African American ChurchesSecond Great AwakeningSlave ReligionTemperance MovementTranscendentalismModern North America (since 1865)Anti-Abortion MovementAnton LaVey and the Church of SatanBilly Graham CrusadesCatholic Church Sexual Abuse CrisisCharles Parham and the Beginnings of PentecostalismChristianity and ProhibitionDecline in Church AffiliationFather Damien of Molokai’s Care of LepersFounding of the Jehovah’s WitnessesFounding of the Nation of IslamGhost Dancing and the Wounded Knee MassacreHealth and Prosperity GospelImpact of Religious Universities in the United StatesIslam in the United StatesMadalyn Murray O’Hair Files Suit to End Prayer and Biblical Readings in Public SchoolsMartin Luther King Jr. and the Civil Rights MovementMethodism and RaceMethodist Ordination of WomenNative American Religions in Modern North AmericaPublication of The FundamentalsReligion’s Impact on Criminal Victimization in the United StatesReligious Impact of Immigration to the United StatesScopes Monkey TrialScott Hahn’s Conversion to CatholicismU.S. Lutherans Apologize for Anti-SemitismWilliam J. Seymour and the Azusa Street RevivalEarly Modern and Modern AfricaAfrikaner Religious Beliefs and the Colonization of South AfricaAnimism in Modern AfricaArrival of Christianity in the Kingdom of CongoChristian Missionary Schools in Colonial AfricaCommunist Persecution of Religion in AfricaConflict between Christians and Muslims in Modern AfricaDivination in Modern AfricaEstablishment of the Sokoto Caliphate in Western AfricaEthiopia’s Catholic InterludeEuropean Christian Missionaries and the Scramble for AfricaExpansion of Islam in West AfricaGays, Lesbians, and Religion in Modern AfricaIslamization under Idris AlawmaMaji Maji RebellionProphecy and Legacy of Simon KimbanguProtestant Missions in AfricaReligion and Female Genital Mutilation in Modern AfricaModern EuropeAbdication of Pope Benedict XVIAnti-Semitism and the HolocaustCatholic and Protestant Conflict in IrelandCharles Darwin’s Publication of On the Origin of the SpeciesCommunist Persecution of Religion in Eastern EuropeCommunist Persecution of Religion in the Soviet UnionDreyfus AffairFestival of Reason and De-Christianization in FranceFirst Vatican CouncilFlorence Nightingale’s Influence on Modern NursingFounding of the Red CrossFounding of the Salvation ArmyImpact of the HolocaustLambeth Conference and Birth ControlOxford MovementPogroms in RussiaPublication of Evangelium VitaeReligion and the Spanish Civil WarSecond Vatican CouncilSyllabus of ErrorsWilliam Wilberforce and the Abolition Movement in BritainEarly Modern and Modern Middle EastApostasy Laws in the Modern Middle EastBlasphemy Laws in the Modern Middle EastDiscovery of the Dead Sea ScrollsEffects of the Six-Day War on ZionismFounding of Modern IsraelFounding of Saudi ArabiaFounding of the Baha’i FaithFounding of the Egyptian Muslim BrotherhoodHamas and the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictIbn Abd al-Wahhab and the Beginning of SalafismImpact of Zakat in the Modern Middle EastIslamic ModernismIslamic Revolution in IranJewish Messianic MovementsOrigins of WahhabismPersecution of YazidisRelations of the Modern Coptic Church with the Egyptian GovernmentRise of the Islamic StateSaudi Arabian Efforts to Spread WahhabismSayyid Qutb’s Influence on the Egyptian Muslim BrotherhoodSix-Day WarYom Kippur WarZionismEarly Modern and Modern East AsiaBuddhism in Asia since 1945Buddhist Violence and the Fall of TibetChinese Rites ControversyChinese Suppression of the UighursChristian Missionary Efforts in ChinaCommunist Persecution of Religion in ChinaCommunist Persecution of Religion in IndochinaCreation of the Underground Catholic Church in ChinaDevelopment of the Cao Dai Religion in VietnamFrancis Xavier’s Mission to JapanIslam in Maritime Southeast Asia (Nusantara)Japan’s Emperor Renounces His DivinityReligion and the State in Communist ChinaShintoism and Japanese Involvement in World War IITaiping RebellionTokugawa Shogunate’s Anti-Christian PoliciesEarly Modern and Modern IndiaAkbar I and Religious Toleration in the Mughal EmpireAligarh MovementAnti-Sikh Riots and the Assassination of Indira GandhiAyodhya Debates and Mumbai RiotsBhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and the Dalit Buddhist MovementBuilding of the Jama Masjid in DelhiChristian Missionary Efforts in IndiaFaraizi MovementFounding of PakistanHindu-Muslim Conflict and the Partition of IndiaHindu Reformers in the Nineteenth CenturyIndian Councils Act of 1909Indian Law Abolishes the “Untouchables” ClassInfluence of Sikh GurusMahatma Gandhi and the Indian Independence MovementMother Teresa Founds the Missionaries of CharityMuslim Separatism in IndiaMyth of ThuggeeRam Mohun Roy’s Criticism of Traditional Indian Marriage PracticesSwaminarayan and the Establishment of the Swaminarayan SampradayWilliam Carey and British Imperial Efforts to Abolish Sati in Modern IndiaLatin AmericaAbolition Movement and ChristianityBartolomé de las Casas as “Protector of the Indians"Christianization of Latin AmericaCommunist Persecution of Religion in Latin AmericaCristero WarEuropean Expansion in the Americas and Crusading IdeologyGrowth of Protestantism in Latin AmericaImpact of the New Laws of 1542Liberation TheologyMexican Revolution and the Catholic ChurchMuslims in Latin AmericaOrder of Santiago in MexicoPractice of VoodooReligion and Divorce in Latin AmericaReligion of Maria Lionza in VenezuelaSanteria, Candomblé, and Catholicism in the AmericasSpiritism in BrazilAbout the Editor and ContributorsIndex