Emotions, Personality, and Psychotherapy – serie

In recent years-especially the past decade, in sharp contrast to preceding decades-knowledge in the field of emotions has been steadily increasing. This knowledge comes from many different specialties: Emotion is a truly interdisciplinary subject. Workers in the fields of physiology, neurology, ethology, physiological psychology, personality and social psychology, clinical psychology and psychiatry, medicine, nursing, social work, and the clergy are all directly concerned with emotion. Professions such as law and architecture have an obvious concern with emotions as they affect human motives and needs. The various branches of art, especially the performing arts, certainly deal with the emotions, especially with the expression of emotions. Constantine Stanislavsky, the Russian theatrical genius, revolu­ tionized modem theater by developing a training method for actors and actresses that emphasized creating genuine emotion on the stage, the emotion appropriate to the character and the life situation being depicted. Indeed, one can hardly think of any human activity that is not related in some way to the field of emotion. Since the contributions to the subject of emotions come from so many different disciplines, it is difficult to find the important common themes that can yield an understanding of the field as a whole. This volume will attempt to make that task easier, but I recognize that no one can treat all of the diverse material expertly and in detail. My aim will be to represent all important types of contributions and perhaps point the way for further and more intensive study of special topics.

This volume is about shyness: its definitions and conceptualization as a psy­ chological construct, research on its causes and consequences, methods for meas­ uring shyness, strategies for alleviating the unpleasant experiences associated with shyness, and its connection to other forms of social anxiety and inhibition. the book together was to provide a resource for The principal goal in putting psychologists from several subdisciplines, most notably social, personality, clin­ ical, and development13-l psychology, in addition to social scientists from other disciplines. We do riot assume that these chapters, considered collectively or individually, provide answers to every conceivable issue with respect to shyness. Rather, we hope that the book will serve to integrate what is known about shyness on the basis of current research and theorizing and to provide both directions and impetus for continued research, theoretical evolution, and improved techniques of assessment and intervention. But one might ask, why another book on shyness? In particular, why a book at this time given the recent appearance of other books on the topic and in view of the extensive literature on related topics such as introversion and anxiety-topics that would seem to compete with shyness for the same concep­ tual space? Our decision to edit this volume was prompted by several consid­ erations, some practical, others more substantive in nature.

This book deals with the results of theoretical and ex­ perimental studies of the emotions which my colleagues and I carried out over the last two decades. An interest in the psychology of emotions prompted us to undertake an analysis of the creative legacy of K. S. Stanislavsky. A result of this analysis was the book, The Method of K. s. StanisZavsky and the PhysioZogy of Emotions, written in 1955-1956 and published by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1962. I am grateful to the first reader and critic of the manuscript, Leon Abgarovich Orbeli. In 1960, having transferred to the Institute of Higher Nervous Activ­ ity and Neurophysiology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, I had the opportunity to conduct experiments on prob­ lems that had interested me for a long time. In close scien­ tific association with Peter Mikhailovich Ershov, director and teacher of theater, I began a systematic study of the in­ voluntary and electrophysiological shifts in actors during voluntary production of various emotional states. Here comparatively quickly we became convinced that the fruitfulness of such studies rests on an absence of any kind of developed, systematic, and sound generaZ theory of the emotions of man and the higher mammals. We will illustrate our difficulties if only with one example. We had frequently read of the so-called "emotional memory.

This book of original contributions presents investigations of psycho­ therapautic interaction. While the methodological strategies and the­ oretical orientations of these investigations are notably diverse, the utterance-by-utterance analysis of client-therapist dialogue provides a strong commonality of interest and a particularly productive perspective from which the process of psychotherapy can be illuminated. It is hoped that the contributions selected, and the problems with which they are occupied, will make evident the rich possibilities such a perspective has to offer. It should be noted, however, that the present volume is not a com­ pendium: any effort to be exhaustive would be thwarted by considera­ tions of length alone. Thus, certain omissions were inevitable. It is hoped that the interested reader will use the extensive references to become acquainted with the works not here included. Whatever effort I extended as editor and contributor to this volume could not have been undertaken without the lifelong spirit of support of my parents, Selma S. and Jay F. Russell. I dedicate my contribution to them.

Regardless of culture, most adult humans report experiencing similar feelings such as anger, fear, humor, and joy. Such subjective emotional states, however, are not universal. Members of some cultures deny experiencing specific emo­ tions such as fear or grief. Moreover, within any culture, individuals differ widely in their self-reports of both the variety and intensity of their emotions. Some people report a vivid tapestry of positive and negative emotional experi­ ences. Other people report that a single emotion such as depression or fear totally dominates their existences. Still others report flat and barren emotional lives. Over the past 100 years, scientists have proposed numerous rival explana­ tions of why such large individual differences in emotions occur. Various authors have offered anthropological, biochemical, ethological, neurological, psycholog­ ical, and sociological models of human emotions. Indeed, the sheer number of competing theories precludes a comprehensive review in a single volume. Ac­ cordingly, only a representative sample of models are discussed in this book, and many equally important theories have been omitted. These omissions were not intended to prejudice the reader in favor of any particular conceptual frame­ work. Rather, this selective coverage was intended to focus attention upon the empirical findings that contemporary theories attempt to explain.

This book is about the dramatic experience of religious conver­ sion. The phenomenon of religious conversion lies at the crossroad of several disciplines. As the title of this book indicates, my own interest in religious conversion is not sociological, historical, nor anthropolog­ ical. My primary interest is not even in the domain of the psychology of religion. That is, this book is not a comprehensive review of the social psychological factors that shape religious beliefs in general and religious conversions in particular. Rather, my primary interest is in the experience of conversion as an instance of a meaningful, sudden change in the course of individu­ al lives. Religious conversion is examined in this book prinwrily from the point of view of the psychology of the self. My aim is to elucidate the experience of religious conversion as a change in the self and to raise suggestions for the study of the self that derive from the data on religious conversion. This interest dictated the scope as well as the methods of the present investigation. Namely, I have chosen to study individuals who have indeed changed visibly as a result of their conversion. My inquiry was based on self-report, assuming the importance of the person's own point of view. Finally, my inquiry was semi-clinical, vii viii PREFACE based on the assumption of an underlying structure to the varieties of conversion experiences.

Hardly anything in psychology is as irking as the trait concept. Psychologists and laypersons alike use primarily adjective trait-names to characterize and even concep­ tualize the individuals they encounter. There are more than a hundred well-defined personality traits and a great many questionnaires for their assessment, some of which are designed to assess the same or very similar traits. Little is known about their ontogenetic development and even less about their underlying dynamics. Psy­ choanalytic theory was invoked for explaining the psychodynamics underlying a few personality traits without, however, presenting sufficient empirical evidence for the validity of these interpretations. In a reductionistic vein, behaviorally inclined psy­ chologists have propounded the thesis that all traits are acquired behaviors. Yet, this view neither reduces the number of personality tests nor explains the resistance of traits to modification by means of reward and punishment. Dissatisfied with these and some other less well-known approaches to person­ ality traits, we decided to explore whether applying our psychosemantic theory of cognition to the trait concept would do better. The way we had to follow was anything but easy.

This book presents an approach to quantifying consciousness and its various states. It represents over ten years of work in developing, test­ ing, and researching the use of relatively simple self-report question­ naires in the retrospective assessment of subjective or phenomenologi­ cal experience. While the simplicity of the method allows for subjective experience to be reliably and validly assessed across various short stim­ ulus conditions, the flexibility of the approach allows the cognitive psy­ chologist, consciousness researcher, and mental health professional to quantify and statistically assess the phenomenological variables associ­ ated with various stimulus conditions, altered-state induction tech­ niques, and clinical procedures. The methodology allows the cognitive psychologist and mental health professional to comprehensively quantify the structures and pat­ terns of subjective experience dealing with imagery, attention, affect, volitional control, internal dialogue, and so forth to determine how these phenomenological structures might covary during such stimulus conditions as free association, a sexual fantasy, creative problem solving, or a panic attack. It allows for various phenomenological pro­ cesses to be reported, quantified, and statistically assessed in a rather comprehensive fashion that should help shed greater understanding on the nature of mind or consciousness.

Emotions are a part of personality and essential to all human relationships, but how well do we understand what they really are? What are the processes by which they occuer and influence us? How do they affect the way we perceive and interact with the world? In The Psychology of Emotions, author Carroll E. Izard provides a timely overview that focuses on the relevance of emotions to our daily lives as he addresses these and other fundamental questions on the activation, expression, experience, and functions of emotions.

Following up on his groundbreaking 1990 work Sampling Normal and Schizophrenic Inner Experience, Dr. Hurlburt delineates the development of his descriptive sampling method across numerous case studies of depressed, anxious, bulimic, and borderline personalities. Though controversial, the method effectively demonstrates that an `introspective' technique can provide compelling, vivid descriptions of patients, as well as make distinctions between diagnostic groups.

This up-to-date summary of research in the field highlights the pivotal role that emotions play in personality formation and social behavior. The authors discuss this research in its historical context, placing current developments within the broader framework of the field's own research history, and that of developmental psychology in general. They treat developmental topics from both the classic age-comparative and normative-descriptive approaches, as well as from an individual differences perspective.

Distinguished psychologist G. William Domhoff brings together-for the first time-all the necessary tools needed to perform quantitative studies of dream content using the rigorous system developed by Calvin S. Hall and Robert van de Castle. The book contains a comprehensive review of the literature, detailed coding rules, normative findings, and statistical tables.

The problem of development is central in the study of emotional life for two basic reasons. First, emotional life so clearly changes (dramatically in the early years) with new emotional reactions emerging against the backdrop of an increasing sensitivity to context and with self-regulation of emotion emerging from a striking dependence on regulatory assistance from caregivers. Such changes demand developmental analysis. At the same time, understanding such profound changes will surely inform our understanding of the nature of development more generally. The complexity of emotional change, when grasped, will reveal the elusive nature of development itself. At the outset, we know that development is complex. We must take seriously what is present at any given phase, including the newborn period, because a developmental analysis disallows something emerging from noth­ ing. Still, it is equally nondevelopmental to posit that new forms of new processes were simply present in their precursors. Rather, development is characterized by transformations in which more complex structures and organization "emerge" from new integration of prior components and new capacities. These new forms and organizations cannot be specified from prior conditions but are due to transactions of the evolving organism with its environment over time. They are not simply in the genome, and they are not simply conditioned by the environment. They are the result of the develop­ mental process.

Emotions are a part of personality and essential to all human relationships, but how well do we understand what they really are? What are the processes by which they occuer and influence us? How do they affect the way we perceive and interact with the world? In The Psychology of Emotions, author Carroll E. Izard provides a timely overview that focuses on the relevance of emotions to our daily lives as he addresses these and other fundamental questions on the activation, expression, experience, and functions of emotions.

Consciousness has always been a particularly elusive concept and one vigorously argued in the scientific community. This new volume takes on the task of defining normal and altered consciousness in their most relevant clinical terms.In States of Consciousness, Andrzej Kokoszka expands on the pioneering work of J.H. Jackson, offering contemporary models for studying consciousness as it applies to both pathology and normal altered states, e.g., relaxation, sleep, meditation, and hypnosis. He makes clear distinctions between the neuroscientific and psychiatric components of consciousness; at the same time, his theories are rooted firmly in the biopsychosocial approach.Highlights of the coverage:-Historical overview of studies of consciousness and its altered states-Evolutionary/dynamic model of consciousness and information processing, based on the structure and principles of cell behavior-Comparison of altered states of consciousness in healthy persons and patients with schizophrenia-New perspectives on the role of consciousness in pathology-Case illustration of altered states in a patient with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, integrating neurobiological, cognitive-behavioral, and psychodynamic data-Applications of the model in clinical practiceStates of Consciousness lends itself to theoretical and practical, research and classroom use. It is relevant to a range of scientists and practitioners in cognition, clinical psychology, social psychology, and neuropsychology The book’s scope and the author’s attention to detail make it a work of great versatility, much like consciousness itself.

This book is concerned almost wholly with a diverse suite of carbonate rocks that were formed near the margins of shallow tropical seas during the last 5-7 million years of the Permian period (300-251 Ma). These unique rocks, collectively known as the Magnesian Limestone, have been studied for more than 160 years and the names of some of the early workers - Geinitz, Murchison, Phillips, Sedgwick, Sorby - would grace any geological hall of fame. Despite this formidable assault, and the efforts of a host of later workers, the Magnesian Limestone still retains many of its secrets. Permian marine rocks crop out on both sides of the Pennines, but those of the Zechstein Sea to the east are by far the thicker and more varied, and in these lie all but one of the sites selected for special protection. Detailed accounts of the rocks in 26 such sites form about half of this book and the normal and special features of these sites are compared, contrasted and placed in their mutual context in the remainder of the book. The sites were selected according to a range of criteria, including uniqueness, representativeness, historical importance and suitability for teaching purposes and research; most are inland quarries but a few are in the unrivalled coastal cliffs of classical County Durham where the main difficulty lies in deciding what not to select.

This volume summarizes the results of a survey of British Upper Carboniferous sites, undertaken between 1978 and 1990 as part of the Geological Conservation Review (GCR). The GCR was the first attempt to assess the scientific significance of all Britain's geological sites and has proved a landmark in the development of a coherent geological conservation strategy in this country. To ensure that the assessments were based on a firm logical and scientific foundation, the range of scientific interest was divided into ninety-seven discrete subject 'blocks', reflecting the natural divisions of stratigraphy, palaeogeography and geological process; Westphalian stratigraphy and Namurian stratigraphy were two of these blocks. The first stage in the survey was a review of the literature, to establish a compre­ hensive database of sites. From this, a provisional list of potentially significant sites was made and this was circulated to all relevant specialists in this country and abroad. At the same time, the sites were visited to assess their physical condition and whether the interest was still extant. In some cases, excavation (so-called 'site-cleaning') was carried out to see if the interest of a site could be resurrected or enhanced. The com­ ments made by the specialists and the field observations were then used to produce a second site list, which again was circulated for comment.

The papers in this volume were presented at the Second International Conference on Unconventional Photoactive Solids held at the R&D Center of BP America September 9-12, 1985. It was part of an on-going series of conferences with the main aim of stressing the Interrelationship of solid state physics and solid state chemistry. The choice of topics covered a broad range of light-Induced solid state phenomena with particular emphasis on novel materials and/or novel phenomena. Organic solids, in particular, were emphasized as they are a natural meeting point of solid state physics and chemistry. A general trend In solid state physics Is to more complex materials (e.g. nonequilibrium glassy films, complicated unit cells, extended molecular building blocks, etc.). This trend necessitates the closer interaction between physicists and chemists. This conference reflects this trend quite dramatically. It is a new grouping together of a mix of materials, people and experimental approaches. A typical new theme pulling together this new mix can be seen in Part I. Fractals in Disordered Media. A variety of disordered media give rise to unusual temporal patterns of diffusion and reactions. The more familiar spatial patterns of self-similarity are discussed in the first article by M.F. Barnsley. Another topic pulling together a diverse group of scientists is covered in Part II. Spectral Hole-Burning. A number of leaders in this field are represented In these three papers.

For at least half of the twentieth century, psychology and the other mental health professions all but ignored the significant adaptive pos­ sibilities of the human gift of imagery. Our capacity seemingly to duplicate sights, sounds, and other sensory experiences through some form of central brain process continues to remain a mysterious, alma st miraculous skill. Because imagery is so much a private experience, experimental psychologists found it hard to measure and turned their attentian to observable behaviors that could easily be studied in ani­ maIs as well as in humans. Psychoanalysts and others working with the emotionally disturbed continued to take imagery informatian se­ riously in the form of dream reports, transferenee fantasies, and as indications of hallucinations or delusions. On the whole, however, they emphasized the maladaptive aspects of the phenomena, the dis­ tortions and defensiveness or the "regressive" qualities of daydreams and sequences of images. The present volume grows out of a long series of investigations by the senior author that have suggested that daydreaming and the stream of consciousness are not simply manifestations in adult life of persist­ ing phenomena of childhood. Rather, the data suggest that imagery sequences represent a major system of encoding and transforming information, a basic human capacity that is inevitably part of the brain's storage process and one that has enormous potential for adap­ tive utility. A companian volume, The Stream of Consciousness, edited by Kenneth S. Pope and Jerome L.

From Memories to Mental Illness explores a ground-breaking hypothesis based on the premise that memories are stored as electrically associated entities reflecting the natural organization of those experiences from which they rose. In the book's first half, the neuroscience of memory storage and retrieval, emotional expression, and other basic processes are considered and a comprehensive hypothesis is formulated. The proposed theory is used in the second half as a rational theoretical explanation for such major psychiatric conditions as multiple personality disorder, depression, mania, and psychogenic amnesia. This text is supported by detailed illustrations to elucidate abstract concepts.

Consciousness has always been a particularly elusive concept and one vigorously argued in the scientific community. This new volume takes on the task of defining normal and altered consciousness in their most relevant clinical terms.In States of Consciousness, Andrzej Kokoszka expands on the pioneering work of J.H. Jackson, offering contemporary models for studying consciousness as it applies to both pathology and normal altered states, e.g., relaxation, sleep, meditation, and hypnosis. He makes clear distinctions between the neuroscientific and psychiatric components of consciousness; at the same time, his theories are rooted firmly in the biopsychosocial approach.Highlights of the coverage:-Historical overview of studies of consciousness and its altered states-Evolutionary/dynamic model of consciousness and information processing, based on the structure and principles of cell behavior-Comparison of altered states of consciousness in healthy persons and patients with schizophrenia-New perspectives on the role of consciousness in pathology-Case illustration of altered states in a patient with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, integrating neurobiological, cognitive-behavioral, and psychodynamic data-Applications of the model in clinical practiceStates of Consciousness lends itself to theoretical and practical, research and classroom use. It is relevant to a range of scientists and practitioners in cognition, clinical psychology, social psychology, and neuropsychology The book’s scope and the author’s attention to detail make it a work of great versatility, much like consciousness itself.

The tension between Freud's clinical discoveries about the power of human emotions and the theoretical framework in which he embedded these discoveries has been most eloquently detailed by Freud himself. His agoniz­ ing reappraisal. in 1926, of the libido theory of anxiety is just one example. But, as is usually the case, theoretical difficulties point to gaps in existing knowledge. At the time when Freud made his fundamental discovery that hysterical symptoms (and dreams) were understandable as reflections of for­ bidden ("strangulated") affect, anthropology was essentially nonexistent as a science. The cultural nature of human beings (our species' unique adaptation to life) could only be adumbrated by Freud (for example, in the myth of Totem and Taboo). As a consequence, the primacy of human attachment emotions in the acculturation process could not be postulated as a theoretical base. What Freud adopted as his base of theorizing was the most forward­ looking materialist concept of his time: the Darwinian concept of individual instincts as the driving force in life. Freud assumed that the vicissitudes of in­ stincts determine the fate of "ideas" in consciousness. Freud's theoretical base thus impelled him to speculate about the origin and fate of ideas instead of about the origin and fate of human emotional connectedness. This book is a small step along the road which should ultimately bring Freud's discoveries into a modem theoretical framework in psychology.

Freud's discovery of an emotional basis for mental illness led him to pursue the emotional basis of human behavior in general. This pursuit led him to undertake observational studies of dreams (1900), everyday mistakes (1901), sexuality (1905b), character formation (1908, 1931), jokes (1905a), and the origin of guilt (1913). Volume 2 of Freud and Modern Psychology examines the texts of each of these major writings in general psychology, continuing to explore the contradiction between Freud's observations about the power of emotions and his narrow the­ oretical formulations about human behavior. Volume 2 also reviews the remarkable power of the uniquely moral emotions of shame and guilt not only to create psychiatric symptoms, as discussed in Volume 1, but to infiltrate our nightly dreams, create everyday parapraxes, influence the development of sexuality, specify the emotional release in jokes, shape personality, and "create" human culture. As we saw in Volume 1, we shall see again in Volume 2 that Freud's theoretical difficulties arose from the absence of a viable theory of human nature as cultural, that is, social by biological origin. In a the­ oretical framework based on the cultural nature of human nature, the emotions and the social cohesion are reciprocally related to each other. The emotions are the means of the social cohesion which, in turn, is the means by which the emotions, including shame and guilt, are formed in infancy.

What are the basic data of psychology? In the early years of experimental psychology, they were reports of ''brighter'' or "heavier" or other esti­ mates of the magnitude of differences between the sensory stimuli pre­ sented in psychophysical experiments. Introspective accounts of the ex­ perience of seeing colored lights or shapes were important sources of psychological data in the laboratories of Cornell, Harvard, Leipzig, or Wiirzburg around the tum of the century. In 1910, John B. Watson called for the objectification of psychological research, even parodying the typical subjective introspective reports that emerged from Edward Bradford Titchener's laboratory. For almost fifty years psychologists largely eschewed subjective information and turned their attention to observable behavior. Rats running mazes or pigeons pecking away on varied schedules of reinforcement became the scientific prototypes for those psychologists who viewed themselves as "doing science. " Psychoanalysts and clinical psychologists sustained interest in the personal reports of patients or clients as valuable sources of data for research. For the psychologists, questionnaires and projective tests that allowed for quantitative analysis and psychometrics seemed to circum­ vent the problem of subjectivity. Sigmund Freud's introduction of on­ going free association became the basis for psychoanalysis as a therapy and as a means of learning about human psychology. Slips-of-the­ tongue, thought intrusions, fantasies, hesitations, and sudden emo­ tional expressions became the data employed by psychoanalysts in for­ mulating hypotheses about resistance, memory, transference, and a host of presumed human wishes and conflicts.

Images as means of expression have fascinated and spoken to me for a long time. Yet it has been a far-reaching and circuitous journey to syn­ thesize imagery and visual expression in the present form. Early in my life my interest in images expressed itself in art, first as a young child drawing, then responding to works of art and enjoying the life conveyed through colors, forms, and lines that created recognizable images and suggested different moods. The centering, transformative, and spir­ itual aspects of art emerged as I sought out art in times of personal turmoil. I returned to the expressive aspects of art through my training as a painter. Later I discovered in my own art, as well as in others' expressions, as a teacher and an art therapist, that many times we ex­ press more through visual means than we are consciously aware of doing. The writings of art therapy pioneers Naumburg (1950, 1953, 1966) and Ulman (1961, 1965) and Rhyne's (1973) gestalt art therapy provided a framework for my own observations. Workshops and literature on guided imagery opened another door to the inner experience through images. The discovery of Jung's concept of archetypes helped me to integrate images into a mind/body frame bridging from the biological roots of the archetypal images to the spiritual aspects of our existence.

This up-to-date summary of research in the field highlights the pivotal role that emotions play in personality formation and social behavior.

Distinguished psychologist G. William Domhoff brings together-for the first time-all the necessary tools needed to perform quantitative studies of dream content using the rigorous system developed by Calvin S. Hall and Robert van de Castle. The book contains a comprehensive review of the literature, detailed coding rules, normative findings, and statistical tables.

This book of original contributions presents investigations of psycho­ therapautic interaction. While the methodological strategies and the­ oretical orientations of these investigations are notably diverse, the utterance-by-utterance analysis of client-therapist dialogue provides a strong commonality of interest and a particularly productive perspective from which the process of psychotherapy can be illuminated. It is hoped that the contributions selected, and the problems with which they are occupied, will make evident the rich possibilities such a perspective has to offer. It should be noted, however, that the present volume is not a com­ pendium: any effort to be exhaustive would be thwarted by considera­ tions of length alone. Thus, certain omissions were inevitable. It is hoped that the interested reader will use the extensive references to become acquainted with the works not here included. Whatever effort I extended as editor and contributor to this volume could not have been undertaken without the lifelong spirit of support of my parents, Selma S. and Jay F. Russell. I dedicate my contribution to them.