T&T Clark Studies in English Theology – serie

Isaac Watts was an important but relatively unexamined figure and this volume offers a description of his theology, specifically identifying his position on reason and passion as foundational. The book shows how Watts modified a Puritan inherence on both topics in the light of the thought of his day. In particular there is an examination of how he both took on board and reacted against aspects of Enlightenment and sentimentalist thought. Watts’ position on these foundational issued of reason and passion are then shown to lie behind his more practical works to revive the church.Graham Beynon examines the motivation for Watts’ work in writing hymns, and the way in which he wrote them; and discusses his preaching and prayer. In each of these practical topics Watts’s position is compared to earlier Puritans to show the difference his thinking on reason and passion makes in practice. Isaac Watts is shown to have a coherent position on the foundational issues of reason and passion which drove his view of revival of religion.

Brett Gray traces the portrayal of Christ that emerges throughout Williams’ diverse writings, including in his engagements with literature and philosophy. What emerges is a vision of Jesus that grows from the roots of the Christian tradition, but is pronounced in a contemporary idiom and sensitive to modern concerns.Although attentive to the broad sweep of the Christian tradition, Williams’ christology is also seen in this book to be a particular British artefact, shaped in dialogue with thinkers such as Donald MacKinnon and Gillian Rose.What is ultimately brought to the surface in this work is the profoundly hopeful, if frequently under-pronounced, eschatology underlying Williams’ christology. Jesus is the “last word”, changing creation’s possibilities and summoning it into an endless and vivifying journey.

In this book, Elizabeth S. Dodd traces the contours of a lyric theology through the lens of English lyric tradition. She addresses the dominance of narrative and drama in contemporary theological aesthetics by drawing on recent developments in lyric theory. Informed by the work of critics such as Jonathan Culler, Dodd explores the significance of lyric for theological discourse. Lyric is presented here as a short, musical, expressive and personal form that is also fragmentary, embodied, socially located and performative. The main chapters address key moments in English lyric tradition. This selective approach aims to expand the theological gaze beyond the monochromatic features of the traditional canon. It covers Anglo-Saxon hymns, medieval lullaby carols, early-modern sonnets and the prophetic poetry of Romanticism, but also Grime and hip hop, performance poetry, social media poetry and Geoffrey Hill.

Isaac Watts was an important but relatively unexamined figure and this volume offers a description of his theology, specifically identifying his position on reason and passion as foundational. The book shows how Watts modified a Puritan inherence on both topics in the light of the thought of his day. In particular there is an examination of how he both took on board and reacted against aspects of Enlightenment and sentimentalist thought. Watts’ position on these foundational issued of reason and passion are then shown to lie behind his more practical works to revive the church.Graham Beynon examines the motivation for Watts’ work in writing hymns, and the way in which he wrote them; and discusses his preaching and prayer. In each of these practical topics Watts’s position is compared to earlier Puritans to show the difference his thinking on reason and passion makes in practice. Isaac Watts is shown to have a coherent position on the foundational issues of reason and passion which drove his view of revival of religion.

Andrew Bowyer presents the first comprehensive examination of Donald MacKinnon’s theology in relation to his moral philosophy. He offers an original and creative reading of MacKinnon’s methodology, and important insights into the key influences and core questions which stood at the heart of his work. Bowyer outlines MacKinnon’s contributions to Anglican theology in the aftermath of the Second World War, highlighting the “therapeutic” nature of his approach in as far as it combined a call for intense self-awareness with a commitment to moral realism.As one of the most influential Anglican theologians in the mid-twentieth century, MacKinnon’s writings reveal him as a restive and unsystematic thinker. However, Bowyer argues that a series of reoccurring questions – ‘obsessions’ might better honour the memory of MacKinnon’s temperament –appear throughout his work, relating to the tensions between the realism and idealism, the call to be “morally serious”, the nature of theological truth claims, and the perennially disruptive presence of Christ. Bowyer examines the key influences on MacKinnon’s thought, the centrality of Christology to his project, his engagement with literature and literary criticism, as well as his response to Wittgenstein’s later philosophy. This volume offers an appreciation of his contribution and a critique of his legacy.

Brett Gray traces the portrayal of Christ that emerges throughout Williams’ diverse writings, including in his engagements with literature and philosophy. What emerges is a vision of Jesus that grows from the roots of the Christian tradition, but is pronounced in a contemporary idiom and sensitive to modern concerns.Although attentive to the broad sweep of the Christian tradition, Williams’ christology is also seen in this book to be a particular British artefact, shaped in dialogue with thinkers such as Donald MacKinnon and Gillian Rose.What is ultimately brought to the surface in this work is the profoundly hopeful, if frequently under-pronounced, eschatology underlying Williams’ christology. Jesus is the “last word”, changing creation’s possibilities and summoning it into an endless and vivifying journey.

John W. Tweeddale reappraises John Owen’s work as a biblical exegete, offering the first analysis of his essays, or “exercitations,” on Hebrews. Owen is frequently acknowledged as a leading figure of the puritan and nonconformist movements of the seventeenth century. However, while his reputation as a statesman, educator, pastor, polemicist, and theologian is widely recognized, he is not remembered as an exegete of Scripture. Yet throughout his life, Owen engaged in the task of biblical interpretation. His massive commentary on Hebrews in particular represents the apex of his career and exemplifies many of the exegetical methods of Protestants in early modern England. Although often overlooked, Owen’s writings on Hebrews are an important resource for understanding his life and thought.Beginning with an evaluation of the state of research on Owen’s commentary, as well as suggesting reasons for its neglect in current scholarship, Tweeddale then places Owen’s work on Hebrews within the context of his life. What follows is a consideration of the function of federal theology in Owen’s essays, and how his hermeneutic fits within the broader scope of reformed discussions on the doctrine of covenant. Tweeddale further examines Owen’s attempts to resolve the challenge posed by a Christological reading of the Old Testament to a literal interpretation of Scripture. He then explores how Owen’s essays represent a refining of the exegetical tradition of the Abrahamic passages in Hebrews, and how his exegesis distinguishes himself from the majority of reformed opinion on the Mosaic covenant. By focusing on the relationship of Christology, covenant theology, and hermeneutics in his commentary, this book argues that neither Owen’s biography nor theology can be fully understood apart from his work on Hebrews and efforts in biblical interpretation.

Richard Hooker’s Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity has long been acknowledged as an influential philosophical, theological and literary text. While scholars have commonly noted the presence of participatory language in selected passages of Hooker’s Laws, Paul Anthony Dominiak is the first to trace how participation lends a sense of system and coherency across the whole work.Dominiak analyses how Hooker uses an architectural framework of ‘participation in God’ to build a cohesive vision of the Elizabethan Church as the most fitting way to reconcile and lead English believers to the shared participation of God. First exploring Hooker’s metaphysical architecture of participation in his accounts of law and the sacraments, Dominiak then traces how this architecture structures cognitive participation in God, as well as Hooker’s political vision of the Church and Commonwealth. The volume culminates with a summary of how Hooker provides a salutary resource for modern ecumenical dialogue and contemporary political retrievals of participation.

Asides about John Henry Newman being either particularly English or particularly un-English are common. John Henry Newman and the English Sensibility scrutinises Newman’s theological writings to establish how his theology can be considered distinctively English or un-English at the different stages of its development.In his Tractarian period, Newman’s theology is shown to be profoundly characterised by common 19th-century tropes of a perceived English sensibility, namely an instinct for compromise, an affection for reserve and a markedly empirical orientation to life. In the period following Newman’s conversion to Catholicism in 1845, however, his theology turns against the Englishness of his earlier years as he critiques of the many theological dangers of a self-confident cultural sensibility. In his mature writings, nonetheless, Newman re-incorporates certain elements of his earlier Englishness with a Catholic grounding, yet also maintains an antipathy to certain targets of his post-conversion polemics.Phillips finds that the English instinct for compromise is not incorporated into Newman’s mature theology, which remains unabashedly one-sided in its understanding of God and the Catholic Church, taking precedence over elements of a cultural sensibility pertaining ultimately to the sphere of the natural. The affection for reserve, however, is shown to be capable of gracious elevation when reconfigured on a Catholic grounding. Most importantly, the profoundly empirical orientation to life which was considered typical of Englishness in Newman’s day emerges as something exhibiting what Newman might consider a ‘antecedent affinity’ to Catholic theology.This book thus concludes by offering a view of the English Catholic sensibility as characterised by a mindset of careful reserve toward knowledge and words about God, arising from a marked concern for the living, embodied present as the site of God’s transformative action in the twists and turns of human life.

This is an imaginative exploration of the art of David Jones which addresses Christian teaching through engagement with selected artistic works: a poem, a painted inscription and a wood engraving. Elizabeth R. Powell’s study does not just enable readers to understand Jones but also to use his kind of loving attention in their own lives – which, Jones would argue, is theology’s most important task.Through close readings of material objects, Powell draws the reader into the participatory, performative and dialogical possibilities of the craft of theology. She frames an older style of theology in a distinctive and modern way, as a graced human practice and a place of transforming relation with the divine. Powell argues that Jones’s art works offer places of beauty in which to ‘become beauty’ along the way. Located at the cross-section of theology, literature and the arts, this volume shows that being interdisciplinary is nothing less than finding ways for theology and humanity to be more richly itself.

John W. Tweeddale reappraises John Owen’s work as a biblical exegete, offering the first analysis of his essays, or “exercitations,” on Hebrews. Owen is frequently acknowledged as a leading figure of the puritan and nonconformist movements of the seventeenth century. However, while his reputation as a statesman, educator, pastor, polemicist, and theologian is widely recognized, he is not remembered as an exegete of Scripture. Yet throughout his life, Owen engaged in the task of biblical interpretation. His massive commentary on Hebrews in particular represents the apex of his career and exemplifies many of the exegetical methods of Protestants in early modern England. Although often overlooked, Owen’s writings on Hebrews are an important resource for understanding his life and thought.Beginning with an evaluation of the state of research on Owen’s commentary, as well as suggesting reasons for its neglect in current scholarship, Tweeddale then places Owen’s work on Hebrews within the context of his life. What follows is a consideration of the function of federal theology in Owen’s essays, and how his hermeneutic fits within the broader scope of reformed discussions on the doctrine of covenant. Tweeddale further examines Owen’s attempts to resolve the challenge posed by a Christological reading of the Old Testament to a literal interpretation of Scripture. He then explores how Owen’s essays represent a refining of the exegetical tradition of the Abrahamic passages in Hebrews, and how his exegesis distinguishes himself from the majority of reformed opinion on the Mosaic covenant. By focusing on the relationship of Christology, covenant theology, and hermeneutics in his commentary, this book argues that neither Owen’s biography nor theology can be fully understood apart from his work on Hebrews and efforts in biblical interpretation.

This is an imaginative exploration of the art of David Jones which addresses Christian teaching through engagement with selected artistic works: a poem, a painted inscription and a wood engraving. Elizabeth R. Powell’s study does not just enable readers to understand Jones but also to use his kind of loving attention in their own lives – which, Jones would argue, is theology’s most important task.Through close readings of material objects, Powell draws the reader into the participatory, performative and dialogical possibilities of the craft of theology. She frames an older style of theology in a distinctive and modern way, as a graced human practice and a place of transforming relation with the divine. Powell argues that Jones’s art works offer places of beauty in which to ‘become beauty’ along the way. Located at the cross-section of theology, literature and the arts, this volume shows that being interdisciplinary is nothing less than finding ways for theology and humanity to be more richly itself.

Andrew Bowyer presents the first comprehensive examination of Donald MacKinnon’s theology in relation to his moral philosophy. He offers an original and creative reading of MacKinnon’s methodology, and important insights into the key influences and core questions which stood at the heart of his work. Bowyer outlines MacKinnon’s contributions to Anglican theology in the aftermath of the Second World War, highlighting the “therapeutic” nature of his approach in as far as it combined a call for intense self-awareness with a commitment to moral realism.As one of the most influential Anglican theologians in the mid-twentieth century, MacKinnon’s writings reveal him as a restive and unsystematic thinker. However, Bowyer argues that a series of reoccurring questions – ‘obsessions’ might better honour the memory of MacKinnon’s temperament –appear throughout his work, relating to the tensions between the realism and idealism, the call to be “morally serious”, the nature of theological truth claims, and the perennially disruptive presence of Christ. Bowyer examines the key influences on MacKinnon’s thought, the centrality of Christology to his project, his engagement with literature and literary criticism, as well as his response to Wittgenstein’s later philosophy. This volume offers an appreciation of his contribution and a critique of his legacy.

Jordan Senner captures the systematic shape, logic, and development of his thought from the vantage point of the God-creature relation. Webster’s development is depicted in terms of three phases – Christocentric, Trinitarian, and Theocentric – culminating in a conceptual analysis of three key aspects of his mature theology: his doctrine of divine perfection, theory of mixed relations, and concept of dual causality. Senner illustrates this heuristic framework for interpreting Webster’s theology through an exploration of different aspects of his account of the God-creature relation: Christology (hypostatic relation), ecclesiology (redemptive relation), bibliology (communicative relation), and theological theology (rational relation).This volume not only provides a dynamic introduction to Webster’s theology as a whole, but it also includes fascinating forays into the complexities of Webster’s engagement with Barth and Aquinas, raising interesting questions for constructive theological dialogue that is neither straightforwardly Protestant nor Catholic.

Jordan Senner captures the systematic shape, logic, and development of his thought from the vantage point of the God-creature relation. Webster’s development is depicted in terms of three phases – Christocentric, Trinitarian, and Theocentric – culminating in a conceptual analysis of three key aspects of his mature theology: his doctrine of divine perfection, theory of mixed relations, and concept of dual causality. Senner illustrates this heuristic framework for interpreting Webster’s theology through an exploration of different aspects of his account of the God-creature relation: Christology (hypostatic relation), ecclesiology (redemptive relation), bibliology (communicative relation), and theological theology (rational relation).This volume not only provides a dynamic introduction to Webster’s theology as a whole, but it also includes fascinating forays into the complexities of Webster’s engagement with Barth and Aquinas, raising interesting questions for constructive theological dialogue that is neither straightforwardly Protestant nor Catholic.

Richard Hooker’s Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity has long been acknowledged as an influential philosophical, theological and literary text. While scholars have commonly noted the presence of participatory language in selected passages of Hooker’s Laws, Paul Anthony Dominiak is the first to trace how participation lends a sense of system and coherency across the whole work.Dominiak analyses how Hooker uses an architectural framework of ‘participation in God’ to build a cohesive vision of the Elizabethan Church as the most fitting way to reconcile and lead English believers to the shared participation of God. First exploring Hooker’s metaphysical architecture of participation in his accounts of law and the sacraments, Dominiak then traces how this architecture structures cognitive participation in God, as well as Hooker’s political vision of the Church and Commonwealth. The volume culminates with a summary of how Hooker provides a salutary resource for modern ecumenical dialogue and contemporary political retrievals of participation.

Offering a decisive challenge to the older reception of Pusey as a paragon of backwards scholarship, Tobias A. Karlowicz argues that Pusey is properly understood as a penetrating and original theologian whose work anticipated contemporary conversations about the nature of theology, and a pivotal figure in the history of Anglican theology. Karlowicz locates the heart of Pusey’s project in a theological perception which looks through the physicality and concreteness of language, to discern Christ at the centre of both Scripture and the physical creation. This ‘sacramental vision,’ which grew from Pusey’s critique of Christianity’s decay and his formative engagement with patristic hermeneutics and ontology, forms his teaching on the sacraments as vehicles for a Christian life of eucharistic self-oblation in union with Christ, and demonstrates the relevance of his thought to contemporary theology.

Offering a decisive challenge to the older reception of Pusey as a paragon of backwards scholarship, Tobias A. Karlowicz argues that Pusey is properly understood as a penetrating and original theologian whose work anticipated contemporary conversations about the nature of theology, and a pivotal figure in the history of Anglican theology. Karlowicz locates the heart of Pusey’s project in a theological perception which looks through the physicality and concreteness of language, to discern Christ at the centre of both Scripture and the physical creation. This ‘sacramental vision,’ which grew from Pusey’s critique of Christianity’s decay and his formative engagement with patristic hermeneutics and ontology, forms his teaching on the sacraments as vehicles for a Christian life of eucharistic self-oblation in union with Christ, and demonstrates the relevance of his thought to contemporary theology.

Thomas Goodwin has been described as 'the forgotten man of English theology' and, though known by some as a pioneer of congregationalism and a prominent member of the Westminster Assembly, the true significance and scope of his life’s work has only recently been discovered. Historical reassessment has uncovered that the majority of Goodwin’s treatises were intended to form a grand project defending Reformed soteriology in the 1650s against new threats as well as traditional opponents. Examining Goodwin’s notion of union with Christ in relation to mystical indwelling, transformation, justification and participation, this study demonstrates the central role of union with Christ in Goodwin’s soteriology. The application of salvation, he contended, must be founded on ‘real’ union with Christ (i.e., mystical union forged by Christ’s indwelling) in order to advance a trinitarian, federal, high Reformed soteriology in which redemption from sin is set within a Reformed scheme of Christocentric deification. This in-depth analysis makes a fresh contribution to recent controversy over union with Christ in the post-Reformation period.

Thomas Goodwin has been described as 'the forgotten man of English theology' and, though known by some as a pioneer of congregationalism and a prominent member of the Westminster Assembly, the true significance and scope of his life’s work has only recently been discovered. Historical reassessment has uncovered that the majority of Goodwin’s treatises were intended to form a grand project defending Reformed soteriology in the 1650s against new threats as well as traditional opponents. Examining Goodwin’s notion of union with Christ in relation to mystical indwelling, transformation, justification and participation, this study demonstrates the central role of union with Christ in Goodwin’s soteriology. The application of salvation, he contended, must be founded on ‘real’ union with Christ (i.e., mystical union forged by Christ’s indwelling) in order to advance a trinitarian, federal, high Reformed soteriology in which redemption from sin is set within a Reformed scheme of Christocentric deification. This in-depth analysis makes a fresh contribution to recent controversy over union with Christ in the post-Reformation period.

For some, Hooker and Anglicanism are basically reformed; for others, fundamentally Catholic; for some embodying a ‘middle way’ between Roman Catholic and Protestant extremes; and for others simply confused and incoherent. This book challenges those perceptions by showing that ‘reformed’ and ‘catholic’ are not intrinsically opposed. Reading Hooker alongside a representative theologian of each tradition (the ‘catholic’ Aquinas and the ‘reformed’ Calvin) on theological method, Hobday shows there is much greater congruity between theologies and theologians often considered in tension.On the role of scripture in theology, the theological capacity of human reason, and the place of tradition, these 3 theologians have far more in common than many subsequent commentators have understood. This book shows how both Hooker and the Anglicanism he defended in such elegant prose, can be coherently both ‘catholic’ and ‘reformed’ (rather than one, or the other, or some middle way). Relocating Hooker, and Anglicanism, in this way reveals them to be rich, fruitful conversation partners in ecumenical dialogue and theological debates across Christian traditions.

For some, Hooker and Anglicanism are basically reformed; for others, fundamentally Catholic; for some embodying a ‘middle way’ between Roman Catholic and Protestant extremes; and for others simply confused and incoherent. This book challenges those perceptions by showing that ‘reformed’ and ‘catholic’ are not intrinsically opposed. Reading Hooker alongside a representative theologian of each tradition (the ‘catholic’ Aquinas and the ‘reformed’ Calvin) on theological method, Hobday shows there is much greater congruity between theologies and theologians often considered in tension.On the role of scripture in theology, the theological capacity of human reason, and the place of tradition, these 3 theologians have far more in common than many subsequent commentators have understood. This book shows how both Hooker and the Anglicanism he defended in such elegant prose, can be coherently both ‘catholic’ and ‘reformed’ (rather than one, or the other, or some middle way). Relocating Hooker, and Anglicanism, in this way reveals them to be rich, fruitful conversation partners in ecumenical dialogue and theological debates across Christian traditions.

Asides about John Henry Newman being either particularly English or particularly un-English are common. John Henry Newman and the English Sensibility scrutinises Newman’s theological writings to establish how his theology can be considered distinctively English or un-English at the different stages of its development.In his Tractarian period, Newman’s theology is shown to be profoundly characterised by common 19th-century tropes of a perceived English sensibility, namely an instinct for compromise, an affection for reserve and a markedly empirical orientation to life. In the period following Newman’s conversion to Catholicism in 1845, however, his theology turns against the Englishness of his earlier years as he critiques of the many theological dangers of a self-confident cultural sensibility. In his mature writings, nonetheless, Newman re-incorporates certain elements of his earlier Englishness with a Catholic grounding, yet also maintains an antipathy to certain targets of his post-conversion polemics.Phillips finds that the English instinct for compromise is not incorporated into Newman’s mature theology, which remains unabashedly one-sided in its understanding of God and the Catholic Church, taking precedence over elements of a cultural sensibility pertaining ultimately to the sphere of the natural. The affection for reserve, however, is shown to be capable of gracious elevation when reconfigured on a Catholic grounding. Most importantly, the profoundly empirical orientation to life which was considered typical of Englishness in Newman’s day emerges as something exhibiting what Newman might consider a ‘antecedent affinity’ to Catholic theology.This book thus concludes by offering a view of the English Catholic sensibility as characterised by a mindset of careful reserve toward knowledge and words about God, arising from a marked concern for the living, embodied present as the site of God’s transformative action in the twists and turns of human life.

Whilst upholding some of the criticisms of Colin Gunton's work, this incisive book argues that there is a Hauptbriefe in Gunton reception that assumes his early classic works, The One, the Three and the Many and The Promise of Trinitarian Theology (1st ed), are definitive of his project and fail to engage adequately with the progressions in Gunton’s later thought. Instead, this book offers a fresh reading of Gunton by giving greater prominence to his later writings, which are centred in the mediation of the Son and the Spirit in creation.Andrew Picard argues that Gunton’s trinitarian theology of culture emerges from his later trinitarian theology of mediation, creation, Christology, pneumatology, and ecclesiology. Exploring these doctrinal foci enables an understanding of Gunton’s account of faithful human culture as embodied worship; a living sacrifice of praise which contributes to the divine redemption and perfection of creation. It is the church’s particular calling to embody such praise through its visible life in community. The study concludes by intersecting Gunton’s theology with the social sciences to critique ableism and consider the politics of the church’s belonging in community.

Whilst upholding some of the criticisms of Colin Gunton's work, this incisive book argues that there is a Hauptbriefe in Gunton reception that assumes his early classic works, The One, the Three and the Many and The Promise of Trinitarian Theology (1st ed), are definitive of his project and fail to engage adequately with the progressions in Gunton’s later thought. Instead, this book offers a fresh reading of Gunton by giving greater prominence to his later writings, which are centred in the mediation of the Son and the Spirit in creation.Andrew Picard argues that Gunton’s trinitarian theology of culture emerges from his later trinitarian theology of mediation, creation, Christology, pneumatology, and ecclesiology. Exploring these doctrinal foci enables an understanding of Gunton’s account of faithful human culture as embodied worship; a living sacrifice of praise which contributes to the divine redemption and perfection of creation. It is the church’s particular calling to embody such praise through its visible life in community. The study concludes by intersecting Gunton’s theology with the social sciences to critique ableism and consider the politics of the church’s belonging in community.

In this book, Elizabeth S. Dodd traces the contours of a lyric theology through the lens of English lyric tradition. She addresses the dominance of narrative and drama in contemporary theological aesthetics by drawing on recent developments in lyric theory. Informed by the work of critics such as Jonathan Culler, Dodd explores the significance of lyric for theological discourse. Lyric is presented here as a short, musical, expressive and personal form that is also fragmentary, embodied, socially located and performative. The main chapters address key moments in English lyric tradition. This selective approach aims to expand the theological gaze beyond the monochromatic features of the traditional canon. It covers Anglo-Saxon hymns, medieval lullaby carols, early-modern sonnets and the prophetic poetry of Romanticism, but also Grime and hip hop, performance poetry, social media poetry and Geoffrey Hill.

The eighteenth-century English minister Andrew Fuller lived a consequential life, debating noteworthy contemporaries such as Thomas Paine and contributing to the pioneering international work of William Carey. However, his soteriology remains his most significant theological contribution. Fuller explored the role that human agency plays in salvation’s reception, and he offered substantive theological proposals that many religious historians now credit with advancing the Evangelical Revival. Fuller’s work was both traditional and creative. He sought faithfulness to the broader Protestant tradition but developed that tradition in unique and contextually relevant ways. Despite Fuller’s influence, much research into his life and work remains. Andrew Fuller and the Search for a Faith Worthy of All Acceptation examines heretofore underutilized primary sources related to Fuller’s theological development. It attends to neglected texts produced by Fuller’s opponents and mentors. Analysing these sources provides a fresh reading of Fuller’s historical setting, one that contextualizes his theology and illuminates his constructive work on faith as a human response to the Gospel. This new interpretation allows scholars to discern more accurately the concepts that animated Fuller, the persons he sought to refute, and the sources on which he relied. This interpretation of Fuller challenges assumptions in contemporary scholarship and raises new questions for further research.