Military Avionics Systems

After 20 years in the Royal Air Force, Ian Moir went on to Smiths Industries in the UK where he was involved in a number of advanced projects. Since retiring from Smiths he is now in demand as a highly respected consultant. Ian has a broad and detailed experience working in aircraft avionics systems in both military and civil aircraft. From the RAF Tornado and Apache helicopter to the Boeing 777, Ian’s work has kept him at the forefront of new system developments and integrated systems implementations. He has a special interest in fostering training and education in aerospace engineering. Allan Seabridge is the Chief Flight Systems Engineer at BAE SYSTEMS at Warton in Lancashire in the UK. In over 30 years in the aerospace industry his work has included avionics on the Nimrod MRA 4 and Joint Strike Fighter as well as a the development of a range of flight and avionics systems on a wide range of fast jets, training aircraft and ground and maritime surveillance projects. Spending much of his time between Europe and the US, Allan is fully aware of systems developments worldwide. He is also keen to encourage a further understanding of integrated engineering systems.

"…an extremely comprehensive book which, successfully, covers this complex subject in great depth." (RAes- Aerospace International, October 2006)

• Series preface xviiAcknowledgements xixAbout the authors xxiIntroduction 11 Military roles 71.1 Introduction 71.2 Air superiority 81.2.1 Role description 81.2.2 Key performance characteristics 81.2.3 Crew complement 91.2.4 Systems architecture 91.2.5 Air superiority – aircraft types 111.3 Ground attack 111.3.1 Role description 111.3.2 Key performance characteristics 111.3.3 Crew complement 121.3.4 Systems architecture 121.3.5 Ground attack – aircraft types 121.4 Strategic bomber 121.4.1 Role description 121.4.2 Key performance characteristics 141.4.3 Crew complement 141.4.4 Systems architecture 141.4.5 Strategic bomber – aircraft types 151.5 Maritime patrol 161.5.1 Role description 161.5.2 Anti-surface unit warfare (ASuW) role 171.5.3 Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) role 171.5.4 Search and rescue (SAR) role 181.5.4.1 Datum searches 191.5.4.2 Area searches 201.5.4.3 Scene-of-action commander 201.5.5 Exclusive economic zone protection 211.5.5.1 Oil and gas rig patrols 211.5.5.2 Anti-pollution 211.5.5.3 Fishery protection 211.5.5.4 Customs and excise cooperation 211.5.6 Key performance characteristics 221.5.7 Crew complement 221.5.8 Systems architecture 221.5.9 MPA aircraft types 221.6 Battlefield surveillance 241.6.1 Role description 241.6.2 Key performance characteristics 241.6.3 Crew complement 251.6.4 Systems architecture 251.6.5 Battlefield surveillance aircraft types 251.7 Airborne early warning 261.7.1 Role description 261.7.2 Key performance characteristics 271.7.3 Crew complement 271.7.4 Systems architecture 271.7.5 AEW aircraft types 281.8 Electronic warfare 291.8.1 Role description 291.8.2 Electronic countermeasures 291.8.3 Electronic support measures 301.8.4 Signals intelligence (SIGINT) 301.8.5 Key performance characteristics 311.8.6 Crew complement 311.8.7 Systems architecture 321.8.8 Example aircraft types 321.9 Photographic reconnaissance 321.9.1 Role description 321.9.2 Key performance characteristics 341.9.3 Crew complement 341.9.4 Systems architecture 341.9.5 Typical aircraft types 341.10 Air-to-air refuelling 351.10.1 Role description 351.10.2 Key performance characteristics 371.10.3 Crew complement 371.10.4 Systems architecture 371.10.5 Aircraft types 381.11 Troop/materiel transport 391.11.1 Role description 391.11.2 Key performance characteristics 391.11.3 Crew complement 391.11.4 Systems architecture 391.11.5 Typical aircraft types 401.12 Unmanned air vehicles 411.13 Training 431.13.1 Typical aircraft types 451.14 Special roles 451.14.1 Examples of special roles 451.15 Summary 45Further reading 462 Technology and architectures 472.1 Evolution of avionics architectures 472.1.1 Distributed analogue architecture 492.1.2 Distributed digital architecture 502.1.3 Federated digital architecture 522.1.4 Integrated modular architecture 542.1.5 Open architecture issues 542.1.6 Impact of digital systems 562.1.7 Response of the services to digital avionics systems issues 572.1.8 Need to embrace COTS 582.2 Aerospace-specific data buses 602.2.1 Tornado serial 602.2.2 Arinc 429 622.2.3 Mil-std-1553b 642.2.4 Stanag 3910 672.3 JIAWG architecture 702.3.1 Generic JIAWG architecture 702.3.2 High-speed data bus 722.3.3 PI bus 732.3.4 TM bus 732.3.5 Obsolescence issues 732.4 COTS data buses 742.4.1 Fibre channel 752.4.2 Fibre channel options 772.4.3 IEEE 1394 firewire 772.5 Real-time operating systems 782.5.1 Key attributes 782.5.2 Safety 792.5.3 Software partitioning 802.5.4 Software languages 822.5.5 Security 822.6 RF integration 832.6.1 Primary radar evolution 842.6.1.1 Independent systems of the 1950s 842.6.1.2 Integrated systems of the 1960s and 1970s 852.6.1.3 Integrated modular architecture of the 1990s 862.6.2 JIAWG RF subsystem integration 872.7 Pave Pace/F-35 shared aperture architecture 94References 973 Basic radar systems 993.1 Basic principles of radar 993.2 Radar antenna characteristics 1043.3 Major radar modes 1073.3.1 Air-to-air search 1073.3.2 Air-to-air tracking 1083.3.3 Air-to-air track-while-scan 1093.3.4 Ground mapping 1103.4 Antenna directional properties 1113.5 Pulsed radar architecture 1123.5.1 Pulsed radar components 1123.5.1.1 Modulator 1133.5.1.2 Transmitter 1133.5.1.3 Antenna 1133.5.1.4 Receiver 1143.5.1.5 Video processor 1143.5.2 Pulsed modulation 1143.5.3 Receiver characteristics 1163.5.3.1 Noise 1163.5.3.2 Clutter 1223.5.4 Radar range equation 1223.6 Doppler radar 1233.7 Other uses of radar 1243.7.1 Frequency modulation ranging 1243.7.2 Terrain-following radar 1253.7.3 Continuous wave illumination 1263.7.4 Multimode operation 1273.8 Target tracking 1283.8.1 Range tracking 1283.8.2 Angle tracking 1293.8.2.1 Sequential lobing 1293.8.2.2 Conical scan 1303.8.2.3 Monopulse 132References 1344 Advanced radar systems 1354.1 Pulse compression 1354.1.1 Coherent transmission 1374.1.2 Fourier transform 1404.2 Pulsed Doppler operation 1404.2.1 Range ambiguities 1434.2.2 Effect of the PRF on the frequency spectrum – Doppler ambiguities 1444.2.3 Range and Doppler ambiguities 1454.3 Pulsed Doppler radar implementation 1494.3.1 Receiver 1504.3.2 Signal processor 1504.3.3 Radar data processor 1544.4 Advanced antennas 1564.4.1 Principle of the phased array 1564.4.2 Planar arrays 1574.4.3 Electronically scanned array 1584.4.4 Active electronically steered array (AESA) 1604.5 Synthetic aperture radar 1644.6 Low observability 1704.6.1 Factors affecting the radar cross-section 1734.6.2 Reducing the RCS 1784.6.3 Comparative RCS values 1794.6.4 Low probability of intercept operation 180References 1815 Electrooptics 1835.1 Introduction 1835.2 Television 1865.3 Night-vision goggles 1895.4 IR imaging 1915.4.1 IR imaging device 1945.4.2 Rotating scanner 1965.4.3 Planar image 1975.4.4 Focal plane array or ‘staring array’ 1985.4.5 IR detector technology 1995.5 IR tracking 2025.5.1 IR seeker heads 2025.5.2 Image tracking 2045.5.3 IR search and track systems 2055.6 Lasers 2065.6.1 Principles of operation 2075.6.2 Laser sensor applications 2115.6.3 US Air Force airborne laser (ABL) 2145.6.4 Laser safety 2155.7 Integrated systems 2165.7.1 Electrooptic sensor fusion 2165.7.2 Pod installations 2185.7.3 Turret installations 2205.7.4 Internal installations 224References 2286 Electronic warfare 2296.1 Introduction 2296.2 Signals intelligence (SIGINT) 2336.2.1 Electronic intelligence (ELINT) 2346.2.2 Communications intelligence (COMINT) 2366.3 Electronic support measures 2386.4 Electronic countermeasures and counter-countermeasures 2416.4.1 Noise jamming 2416.4.1.1 Burnthrough 2436.4.2 Deception jamming 2446.4.3 Deployment of the jamming platform 2456.4.4 Low probability of intercept (LPI) radar 2466.5 Defensive aids 2476.5.1 Radar warning receiver 2486.5.2 Missile warning receiver 2496.5.3 Laser warning systems 2496.5.4 Countermeasure dispensers 2506.5.4.1 Chaff and flares 2516.5.4.2 Towed decoy 2526.5.5 Integrated defensive aids systems 2536.5.5.1 AN/APG-79 AESA radar 2536.5.5.2 AN/ALR-67 radar warning receiver 2536.5.5.3 AN/ALQ-214 integrated defensive electronic countermeasures (IDECM) 2546.5.5.4 AN/ALE-47 countermeasure dispenser 255References 2567 Communications and identification 2577.1 Definition of CNI 2577.1.1 RF spectrum 2587.1.2 Communications control systems 2597.2 RF propagation 2597.2.1 High frequency 2617.2.2 Very high frequency 2627.2.3 Satellite communications 2647.3 Transponders 2667.3.1 Air traffic control (ATC) transponder – mode S 2677.3.2 Traffic collision and avoidance system 2697.3.3 Automatic dependent surveillance – address mode (ADS-A) 2727.3.4 Automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast mode (ADS-B) 2727.3.5 Indentification friend or foe (IFF) 2727.4 Data links 2737.4.1 JTIDS operation 2757.4.2 Other data links 2777.5 Network-centric operations 277References 2798 Navigation 2818.1 Navigation principles 2818.1.1 Introduction 2818.1.2 Basic navigation 2828.2 Radio navigation 2848.2.1 Oceanic crossings 2858.3 Inertial navigation fundamentals 2868.4 Satellite navigation 2878.4.1 Differential GPS 2888.4.2 Wide-area augmentation system (WAAS) 2888.4.3 Local-area augmentation system (LAAS) 2898.5 Integrated navigation 2908.5.1 Sensor usage – phases of flight 2918.5.2 GPS overlay programme 2928.5.3 Categories of GPS receiver 2928.6 Flight management system 2928.6.1 Fms Cdu 2948.6.2 FMS functions 2968.6.3 Lnav 2978.6.4 Airway navigation 2988.6.5 Area navigation 2998.6.6 Vnav 2998.6.7 Four-dimensional navigation 2998.6.8 Full performance based navigation 2998.6.9 FMS procedures 3008.6.10 Traffic collision and avoidance system (TCAS) 3008.6.11 GPWS and EGPWS 3008.7 Navigation aids 3028.7.1 Automatic direction finding 3038.7.2 Very high-frequency omnirange (VOR) 3038.7.3 Distance-measuring equipment (DME) 3038.7.4 Tacan 3048.7.5 Vortac 3058.7.6 Hyperbolic navigation systems – LORAN-C 3058.7.7 Instrument landing system 3078.7.8 Microwave landing system (MLS) 3098.8 Inertial navigation 3108.8.1 Principles of operation 3108.8.2 Stand-alone inertial navigation system 3118.8.3 Air data and inertial reference systems (ADIRS) 3138.8.4 Inertial platform implementations 3158.8.5 Space axes to the Greenwich meridian 3168.8.6 Earth axes to geographic axes 3168.8.7 Geographic to great circle (navigation) 3188.8.8 Great circle/navigation axes to body axes (strapdown) 3198.8.9 Platform alignment 3198.8.9.1 Platform levelling 3208.8.9.2 Gyrocompass alignment 3208.8.10 Historical perspective – use of inertial platforms 3218.9 Global navigation satellite systems 3228.9.1 Introduction to GNSS 3228.9.2 Principles of operation 3238.9.3 Integrity features 3248.9.4 GPS satellite geometry 3258.10 Global air transport management (GATM) 3258.10.1 Communications 3268.10.1.1 Air-to-ground VHF data link 3268.10.1.2 Air-to-ground SATCOM communications 3278.10.1.3 HF data link 3278.10.1.4 8.33 kHz VHF voice communications 3278.10.1.5 Protected ILS 3288.10.2 Navigation 3288.10.2.1 Area navigation (RNAV) 3288.10.2.2 RNP RNAV and actual navigation performance 3298.10.2.3 Required navigation performance (RNP) 3298.10.2.4 RNAV standards within Europe 3298.10.2.5 Rvsm 3308.10.2.6 RVSM implementation 3318.10.2.7 Differential GPS enhancements 3318.10.3 Surveillance 332References 3339 Weapons carriage and guidance 3359.1 Introduction 3359.2 F-16 Fighting Falcon 3369.2.1 F-16 evolution 3379.2.2 F-16 mid-life update 3409.2.3 F-16 E/F (F-16 block 60) 3439.3 AH-64 C/D Longbow Apache 3459.3.1 Baseline system 3459.3.2 Longbow Apache 3459.3.3 Modernisation of TADS/PNVS 3489.3.4 Weapons 3499.4 Eurofighter Typhoon 3499.4.1 Sensors and navigation 3529.4.2 Displays and controls 3529.4.3 Flight control 3539.4.4 Utilities control 3539.4.5 Systems integration 3539.4.6 Survival/countermeasures 3549.4.7 Weapons 3549.5 F/A-22 Raptor 3579.5.1 Introduction 3579.5.2 AESA radar 3579.5.3 Electronic warfare and electronic support measures 3589.5.4 Cni 3609.5.5 Displays/cockpit 3609.5.6 Vehicle management system 3619.5.7 Weapons 3619.6 Nimrod MRA 4 3619.6.1 Navigation and displays 3639.6.2 Utilities control 3659.6.3 Communications 3659.6.4 Mission and sensor systems 3669.6.5 Dass 3669.6.6 Weapons and stores 3679.7 F-35 joint strike fighter 3679.7.1 Integrated common processors 3689.7.2 AESA radar 3689.7.3 Integrated EW/CNI and EO systems 3689.7.4 Displays suite 3699.7.5 Vehicle management system 3699.7.6 Weapons 3699.7.7 Gun 3709.8 MIL-STD-1760 standard stores interface 3709.9 Air-to-air missiles 3739.9.1 AIM-9 Sidewinder 3739.9.2 Aim-120 Amraam 3749.9.3 Aim-132 Asraam 3759.10 Air-to-ground ordnance 3759.10.1 Wind-corrected munition dispenser 3769.10.2 Joint direct attack munition 3769.10.3 Agm-88 Harm 3779.10.4 Alarm 3779.10.5 Storm Shadow/SCALP EN 377Resources 378References 37810 Vehicle Management Systems 37910.1 Introduction 37910.2 Historical development of control of utility systems 38110.3 Summary of utility systems 38310.3.1 Mechanical systems 38310.3.2 Crew systems 38310.3.3 Power systems 38310.3.4 Fuel system 38410.3.5 Air systems 38410.3.6 Electrical power distribution systems 38410.3.7 Vehicle management system (VMS) 38410.3.8 Prognostics and health management 38510.4 Control of utility systems 38510.5 Subsystem descriptions 38910.5.1 Mechanical systems 39010.5.1.1 Primary flight controls 39010.5.1.2 Secondary flight controls 39210.5.1.3 Landing gear 39210.5.1.4 Wheels, brakes and tyres 39310.5.1.5 Arrestor hook/brake parachute 39310.5.1.6 Actuation mechanisms 39410.5.2 Crew systems 39410.5.2.1 Crew escape 39410.5.2.2 Aircrew clothing 39410.5.2.3 Life support 39510.5.2.4 Oxygen/OBOGS 39510.5.2.5 Canopy jettison 39710.5.3 Power systems 39710.5.3.1 Propulsion system 39710.5.3.2 Secondary power 39710.5.3.3 Emergency power 39810.5.4 Electrical power generation and distribution 39910.5.4.1 F/A-18E/F Super Hornet 39910.5.4.2 F/A-22 Raptor 39910.5.5 Hydraulic power generation and distribution 40010.5.6 Fuel systems 40110.5.7 Air systems 40310.5.8 Electrical utilisation systems 40510.5.9 Prognostics and health management 40510.6 Design considerations 40610.6.1 General 40610.6.2 Processor and memory 40710.6.3 Interfacing 40710.6.4 Software 40810.6.5 Obsolescence 40810.6.6 Human–machine interface 409References 410Further reading 41011 Displays 41111.1 Introduction 41111.2 Crew station 41211.2.1 Hawker Siddley (BAe) Harrier GR.Mk1 and GR.Mk 3 (RAF) and AV-8A (USMC) 41211.2.2 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet 41311.2.3 Eurofighter Typhoon 41511.2.4 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor 41611.2.5 Boeing (McDonnell Douglas/Hughes) AH-64D Longbow Apache 41711.3 Head-up display 41811.3.1 HUD principles 41911.3.2 Collimating (refractive optics) head-up display 42011.3.3 Field of view 42111.3.4 Collimating (refractive) HUD – examples 42111.3.4.1 British Aerospace Harrier GR.Mk1 and GR.Mk 3 42111.3.4.2 McDonnell Douglas/British Aerospace Night-Attack Harrier II (GR-7 and AV-8B) 42211.3.5 Pupil-forming (reflective/diffractive) head-up displays 42311.3.6 Pupil-forming (reflective/diffractive) HUD – examples 42511.3.6.1 F16 LANTIRN HUD – multibounce quasi-axial configuration 42511.3.6.2 Eurofighter Typhoon HUD – single-element off-axis configuration 42611.3.7 Head-up display functional description 42711.3.8 Image generation 42911.3.9 HUD symbology and principles of use 43011.3.9.1 Primary flight data 43111.3.9.2 Navigation symbology 43211.3.9.3 Air-to-surface weapon aiming 43211.3.9.4 Air-to-air weapon aiming 43311.4 Helmet-mounted displays 43411.4.1 HMD physiological and environmental aspects 43611.4.2 Head tracker 43711.4.3 Optical head tracker 43811.4.4 Electromagnetic head tracker 43811.4.5 HMD accuracy and dynamic performance 43811.4.6 HMD optical configurations 43911.4.7 Helmet-mounted displays – examples 44211.4.7.1 Integrated helmet and display sight system (IHADS) 44211.4.7.2 Helmet-mounted sight 44211.4.7.3 Joint helmet-mounted cueing system (JHMCS) 44311.4.7.4 Eurofighter Typhoon HMD 44411.4.7.5 Joint strike fighter HMD 44611.4.8 Helmet-mounted display functional description 44711.4.9 Binocular day/night HMD architectures 44811.4.10 HMD symbology 44811.4.11 HMD as a primary flight reference 44911.5 Head-down displays 45011.5.1 CRT multifunction head-down display 45011.5.1.1 Shadow-mask CRT 45011.5.1.2 X/Y deflection amplifier 45211.5.1.3 Shadow-mask CRT characteristics 45211.5.1.4 CRT MFD: principles of operation 45311.5.1.5 F/A-18 and AV-8B multipurpose colour display (MPCD) 45311.5.2 AMLCD multifunction head-down display 45511.5.2.1 AMLCD display head assembly 45511.5.2.2 Backlight 45711.5.2.3 AMLCD characteristics 45811.5.2.4 AMLCD sourcing 45911.5.2.5 AMLCD MFD: principles of operation 45911.5.2.6 Integrated display unit 46011.6 Emerging display technologies 46111.6.1 Microdisplay technologies 46111.6.2 High-intensity light sources 46211.6.3 Transmissive LCD 46211.6.4 Reflective LCD 46211.6.5 Digital micromirror device 46311.6.6 Rear-projection ‘big picture’ head-down display 46611.6.7 Solid-state helmet-mounted display 46711.6.8 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) 46911.6.9 Virtual retinal displays 47011.7 Visibility requirements 47111.7.1 Military requirements 47111.7.1.1 Head-down display: high ambient – sun rear 47211.7.1.2 Head-down display: high ambient – sun forward 47211.7.1.3 Head-up display and helmet-mounted display: high ambient – sun forward 47311.7.1.4 Low ambient – dusk/dawn transition 47411.7.1.5 Night 47411.7.2 US DoD definitions and requirements 47511.7.3 European (Eurofighter Typhoon) definitions and requirements 47511.7.4 Viewability examples 47611.7.4.1 AMLCD head-down display 47611.7.4.2 Head-up display 47711.7.4.3 Night-vision imaging system compatibility 477References 480Bibliography 483Commercial handbooks, standards and specifications 484Military handbooks, standards and specifications 485Advisory circulars 485Standards 486Technical standing orders 486Useful websites 486Glossary 487Units 499Aircraft types 500Index 503