Principles of Flight for Pilots

Peter Swatton is Director and Chief Ground Instructor at Ground Training Services at Bournemouth/Hurn airport which specialises in training pilots for the JAA examinations. He was a navigator in the Royal Air Force for 37 years, of which 28 were spent as an OCU instructor and Wing examiner: on retirement he became an instructor with the Professional Pilot Study Centre at Bournemouth and remained there for 12 years before assuming his current role.

“Organised and written as an accessible study guide for student pilots wishing to take commercial ground examinations to obtain ATPL or CPL licenses, Principles of Flight for Pilots also provides a reliable up-to-date reference for qualified and experienced personnel wishing to further improve their understanding of the Principles of Flight and related subjects." (Expofairs, 27 April 2013)"Organised and written as an accessible study guide for student pilots wishing to take commercial ground examinations to obtain ATPL or CPL licenses, Principles of Flight for Pilots also provides a reliable up-to-date reference for qualified and experienced personnel wishing to further improve their understanding of the Principles of Flight and related subjects." (Aeroweb-fr.net, 1 March 2011)

• Series Preface xxiPreface xxiiiAcknowledgements xxvList of Abbreviations xxviiWeight and Mass xxxiPart 1 The Preliminaries 11 Basic Principles 31.1 The Atmosphere 31.2 The Composition of Air 31.2.1 The Measurement of Temperature 31.2.2 Air Density 41.3 The International Standard Atmosphere 41.3.1 ISA Deviation 51.3.2 JSA Deviation 51.3.3 Height and Altitude 61.3.4 Pressure Altitude 71.3.5 Density Altitude 71.4 The Physical Properties of Air 71.4.1 Fluid Pressure 71.4.2 Static Pressure 71.4.3 Dynamic Pressure 71.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion 81.5.1 Definitions 81.5.2 First Law 81.5.3 Second Law 81.5.4 Third Law 91.6 Constant-Acceleration Formulae 91.7 The Equation of Impulse 91.8 The Basic Gas Laws 101.8.1 Boyles Law 101.8.2 Charles’ Law 101.8.3 Pressure Law 101.8.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 101.9 The Conservation Laws 111.10 Bernoulli’s Theorem 111.10.1 Viscosity 111.11 The Equation of Continuity 121.12 Reynolds Number 121.12.1 Critical Reynolds Number (Recrit) 131.13 Units of Measurement 13Self-Assessment Exercise 1 152 Basic Aerodynamic Definitions 192.1 Aerofoil Profile 192.2 Aerofoil Attitude 202.3 Wing Shape 212.4 Wing Loading 232.5 Weight and Mass 242.5.1 The Newton 242.6 Airspeeds 242.6.1 Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR) 242.6.2 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) 252.6.3 Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) 252.6.4 Rectified Airspeed (RAS) 252.6.5 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) 252.6.6 True Airspeed (TAS) 252.6.7 Mach Number 262.7 Speed Summary 262.8 The Effect of Altitude on Airspeeds 272.8.1 a. Below the Tropopause 272.8.2 b. Above the Tropopause 27Self-Assessment Exercise 2 29Part 2 Basic Aerodynamics 333 Basic Control 353.1 Aeroplane Axes and Planes of Rotation 353.1.1 The Longitudinal or Roll Axis 353.1.2 The Lateral or Pitch Axis 353.1.3 The Normal or Yaw Axis 353.2 The Flight Controls 353.3 The Elevators 373.4 Pitch Control 373.4.1 Control Surface Area 383.4.1.1 Control Surface Angular Deflection 383.4.2 The Moment Arm 383.4.3 Angle of Attack 383.5 Alternative Pitch Controls 393.5.1 Variable Incidence Tailplane 393.5.2 The Stabilator 403.5.3 The Elevons 403.6 The Rudder 403.7 Yaw Control 413.7.1 Control-Surface Area 413.7.1.1 Control-Surface Deflection 413.7.2 The Moment Arm 413.7.2.1 Engine-Induced Yaw 413.8 Asymmetric Engine Yawing Moment 423.8.1 Critical Power Unit 423.9 Asymmetric Rolling Moment 433.10 Minimum Control Speeds 443.10.0.1 For Take-off 443.10.0.2 For Landing 443.10.1 VMC 443.10.2 VMCG 443.10.2.1 The Effect of the Variables on VMCG and VMC 453.10.3 VMCL 453.10.4 VMCL(1out) 453.10.5 VMCL-2 463.10.5.1 The Effect of the Variables on VMCL 463.11 The Ailerons 463.12 Roll Control 463.12.1 The Flaperon 473.13 Wing Twist 473.14 Geometric Twist 473.15 Aerodynamic Twist 473.15.1 Twisterons 483.16 High-Speed Twist 493.16.1 Low-Speed Ailerons 493.16.2 High-Speed Ailerons 493.16.3 Roll Spoilers 50Self-Assessment Exercise 3 514 Lift Generation 554.1 Turbulent Flow 554.2 Streamline Flow 554.3 The Boundary Layer 574.4 The Laminar Boundary Layer 584.4.1 The Transition Point 584.5 The Turbulent Boundary Layer 584.5.1 Leading-Edge Separation 594.6 Boundary-Layer Control 594.6.1 Blowing 594.6.2 Suction 604.6.3 Vortex Generators 604.7 Two-Dimensional Flow 614.8 The Stagnation Point 614.8.1 Aerofoil Upper-Surface Airflow 614.8.2 Aerofoil Lower-Surface Airflow 614.9 Lift Production 624.9.1 Symmetrical Aerofoils 624.9.2 Cambered Aerofoils 624.9.2.1 a. Negative Angles of Attack 644.9.2.2 b. Small Positive Angles of Attack 644.9.2.3 c. Large Positive Angles of Attack 644.10 The Centre of Pressure (CP) 644.11 Pitching Moments 654.12 The Aerodynamic Centre 674.13 Three-Dimensional Flow 684.14 Wing-Tip Vortices 684.15 Wake Turbulence 704.16 Spanwise Lift Distribution 704.16.1 The Effect of Wing Planform 70Self-Assessment Exercise 4 75Part 3 Level-Flight Aerodynamics 795 Lift Analysis 815.1 The Four Forces 815.2 Mass 815.3 Lift Analysis 825.4 The Factors Affecting CL 845.5 The Effect of Angle of Attack 845.6 The Effect of the Wing Shape 855.6.1 The Effect of Leading-Edge Radius 865.6.2 The Effect of Camber 865.6.3 The Effect of Aspect Ratio 875.6.4 The Wing Planform 885.6.4.1 The Effect of Sweepback 885.7 The Effect of Airframe-Surface Condition 895.8 The Effect of Reynolds Number 915.9 The Relationship between Speeds, Angles of Attack and CL 925.10 Aerofoil Profiles 935.10.1 High-Lift Aerofoils 935.10.2 General-Purpose Aerofoils 945.10.3 High-Speed Aerofoils 94Self-Assessment Exercise 5 956 Lift Augmentation 996.1 Wing Loading 996.2 CLmax Augmentation 996.3 Slats 1006.3.1 Automatic Slats 1016.3.2 Manual Slats 1036.4 Slots 1036.5 Leading-Edge Flaps 1036.5.1 The Krueger Flap 1056.5.2 The Drooped Leading Edge 1066.6 Trailing-Edge Flaps 1066.6.1 The Plain Trailing-Edge Flap 1076.6.2 The Split Trailing-Edge Flap 1086.6.3 The Slotted Trailing-Edge Flap 1086.6.4 The Fowler Flap 1096.6.4.1 The Effect of Trailing-Edge Flaps 1106.6.5 Leading- and Trailing-Edge Combinations 1106.6.5.1 The Effect of Sweepback on Flap 112Self-Assessment Exercise 6 1137 Drag 1197.1 Parasite (Profile) Drag 1197.2 Surface-Friction Drag 1207.2.0.1 Surface Area 1207.2.0.2 Coefficient of Viscosity 1207.2.0.3 Rate of Change of Airspeed 1207.2.1 Flow Transition 1207.2.1.1 Surface Condition 1217.2.1.2 Speed and Size 1217.2.1.3 Adverse Pressure Gradient 1217.3 Form (Pressure) Drag 1217.3.1 Interference Drag 1227.4 Induced Drag 1227.4.1 The Effect of Speed 1237.4.2 The Effect of Mass 1257.4.3 The Effect of Planform 1257.4.4 The Effect of Sweepback 1257.4.5 The Effect of Aspect Ratio 1267.4.6 The Effect of Flap 1267.4.7 The Effect of the CG Position 1267.4.8 Effects Summary 1277.5 Ground Effect 1277.6 Wing-Tip Design 1287.7 Wingspan Loading 1297.8 The Coefficient of Induced Drag (CDI) 1297.9 Total Drag 1307.10 Analysis of the Total-Drag Curve 1307.11 The Velocity of Minimum Drag (VIMD) 1307.12 The Velocity of Minimum Power (VIMP) 1327.13 The Maximum EAS/Drag Ratio (VI/Dmax) Speed 1327.14 Speed Stability and Instability 1337.15 The Effect of the Variables on Total Drag 1347.15.1 The Effect of Altitude 1347.15.2 The Effect of Mass 1347.15.3 The Effect of Flap 1347.16 The CL v CD Polar Diagram 1367.17 Analysis of the Lift/Drag Ratio 1377.17.1 The Effect of Flap 1387.17.2 The Effect of Aspect Ratio 1387.17.3 The Effect of Mass 1397.18 Drag Augmentation 1397.19 Airbrakes 1397.20 Spoilers 1397.20.1 Flight Spoilers 1397.20.2 Ground Spoilers 1407.20.3 Roll Spoilers 1417.21 Barn-Door Flaps 1427.22 Drag Parachutes 142Self-Assessment Exercise 7 1438 Stalling 1538.0.1 The Stall 1538.1 The Boundary Layer 1538.2 Boundary-Layer Separation 1548.2.1 Trailing-Edge Separation 1548.2.2 Leading-Edge Separation 1558.3 The Low-Speed Stalling Angle 1568.4 Factors Affecting the Low-Speed Stalling Angle 1568.4.1 Slat/Flap Setting 1568.4.2 Ice Accretion 1578.4.3 Effect on Take-off and Landing 1588.4.3.1 Take-Off 1588.4.3.2 Landing 1588.4.3.3 Reduced Stalling Angle 1598.4.3.4 Abnormal Stalling Characteristics 1598.4.4 Heavy Rain 1598.5 The Effect of Wing Design on the Low-Speed Stall 1598.5.1 Swept Wings 1608.5.2 Elliptical Wings 1618.5.3 Rectangular Wings 1618.5.4 Straight Tapered Wings 1618.6 Spanwise-Flow Attenuation Devices 1618.6.1 The Wing Fence 1628.6.2 The Sawtooth Leading Edge 1628.6.3 The Notched Leading Edge 1628.6.4 Vortex Generators 1628.7 Wing-Tip Stalling 1648.7.1 The Effect of Flap 1648.7.2 The Prevention of Wing-Tip Stalling 1658.7.2.1 a. Washout 1658.7.2.2 b. Root Spoiler 1658.7.2.3 c. Changing Camber 1658.7.2.4 d. Slats and Slots 1658.7.2.5 e. Aspect Ratio 1658.8 Stalling Characteristics 1658.8.1 Ideal Stalling Characteristics 1658.8.2 Swept-Wing Stalling Characteristics 1668.9 Summary of Factors Affecting the Stalling Angle 1668.10 Aerodynamic Stall Warning 1668.11 Mechanical Stall Warning 1678.11.1 The Flapper Switch 1678.11.2 The Angle of Attack Sensor 1678.11.3 Stick Shakers 1688.11.4 Stick Pushers 1688.12 Stalling Speed 1688.13 Factors Affecting Stalling Speed 1698.14 Centre of Gravity (CG) 1698.14.1 Forward CG 1698.14.1.1 Disadvantage 1698.14.1.2 Advantage 1698.14.2 Aft CG 1698.14.2.1 Disadvantage 1708.14.2.2 Advantage 1708.15 Mass 1708.16 Altitude 1718.17 Configuration 1718.18 Ice Accretion 1718.19 Wing Planform 1728.20 Summary of Factor Effects on Stalling Speed 1728.21 The Speed Boundary 1728.22 The Effect of a Gust on the Load Factor 1738.23 Turn Stalling Speed 1748.24 Stalling-Speed Definitions 1748.24.1 VCLmax 1758.24.2 VMS 1758.24.3 VMS0 1758.24.4 VMS1 1758.24.5 VS 1768.24.6 VS0 1768.24.7 VS1 1768.24.8 VS1g 1768.24.9 VSR 1768.24.10 VSR0 1768.24.11 VSR1 1768.25 The Deep Stall 1778.26 The Accelerated Stall 1778.27 The Power-On Stall 1778.28 The Shock Stall 1788.29 Stall Recovery 1788.29.1 The Low-speed Stall 1788.29.2 The Deep Stall 1788.29.3 The Accelerated Stall 1788.29.4 The Power-On Stall 1798.29.5 The Shock Stall 1798.30 The Spin 179Self-Assessment Exercise 8 1819 Thrust and Power in Level Flight 1899.1 Thrust 1899.2 Analysis of the Thrust Curves 1899.2.1 Thrust Available 1899.2.2 Thrust Required 1909.2.2.1 Maximum Speed (EAS) 1909.3 The Effect of the Variables on Thrust 1919.3.1 Altitude 1919.3.2 Mass 1939.3.3 Asymmetric Flight 1939.3.4 Centre of Gravity 1959.4 Power 1969.5 Analysis of the Power Curves 1969.5.1 Maximum TAS 1979.5.2 VMP and VMD 1979.6 The Effect of the Variables on Power 1989.6.1 Altitude 1989.6.2 Mass 2009.7 Summary 201Self-Assessment Exercise 9 20310 Advanced Control 20710.1 Wing Torsion and Flexing 20710.2 Wing Flutter 20710.3 Torsional Flexural Flutter 20710.4 Aileron Flutter 21010.4.1 Torsional Aileron Flutter 21010.4.2 Flexural Aileron Flutter 21110.4.2.1 The Mass Balance 21210.5 Divergence 21310.6 Control Secondary Effects 21310.7 Adverse Yaw 21310.8 Counteraction Devices 21410.8.1 Rudder/Aileron Coupling 21410.8.2 Slot/Aileron Coupling 21410.8.3 Spoiler/Aileron Coupling 21410.8.4 Differential Aileron Deflection 21410.8.5 Frise Ailerons 21410.9 Control-Surface Operation 21510.10 Aerodynamic Balance Methods 21610.10.1 The Hinge Balance 21610.10.2 The Horn Balance 21610.10.3 The Internal Balance 21710.10.4 The Balance Tab 21710.10.5 The Antibalance Tab 21810.10.6 The Spring Tab 21810.10.7 The Servo Tab 22010.11 Primary Control-Surface Trimming 22110.11.1 Variable Trim Tabs 22210.11.2 Fixed Trim Tabs 22210.11.3 Stabilizer Trim Setting 22210.12 Powered Controls 22310.13 Power-Assisted Controls 22310.14 Fully Powered Controls 22310.14.1 Artificial Feel 22410.14.1.1 The Simple System 22410.14.1.2 The Servo-Assisted Hydraulic System 22410.15 Fly-by-Wire 225Self-Assessment Exercise 10 227Part 4 Stability 23111 Static Stability 23311.1 Static Stability 23311.2 The Effect of the Variables on Static Stability 23511.3 Directional Static Stability 23511.4 Yaw and Sideslip 23511.5 The Directional Restoring Moment 23511.5.1 Fin and Rudder Design 23711.5.2 The Dorsal Fin 23711.5.3 The Ventral Fin 23711.5.4 The Moment Arm 23711.6 Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Directional Static Stability 23811.6.1 Fuselage 23811.6.2 Wing 23811.6.2.1 Dihedral 23911.6.3 Sweepback 23911.7 Propeller Slipstream 24011.8 Neutral Directional Static Stability 24011.9 Lateral Static Stability 24011.10 Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Lateral Static Stability 24211.10.1 Increased Lateral Static Stability 24211.10.2 Decreased Lateral Static Stability 24211.11 Sideslip Angle and Rolling Moment Coefficient 24311.12 Analysis of Design Feature Effects 24411.13 Wing Contribution 24411.13.1 Dihedral 24411.13.2 Anhedral 24511.13.3 Sweepback 24511.14 Wing/Fuselage Interference 24611.14.1 Shielding Effect 24611.14.2 Wing Location 24611.15 Fuselage/Fin 24611.15.1 Fin Size 24611.15.2 Ventral Fin 24611.16 Handling Considerations 24711.16.1 Propeller Slipstream 24711.16.2 Crosswind Landings 24711.16.3 Flaps 24711.17 Longitudinal Static Stability 24811.18 The Centre of Pressure (CP) 24911.19 The Neutral Point (NP) 25011.19.1 Types of Static Neutral Point 25011.19.1.1 The Stick-Free Static Neutral Point 25011.19.1.2 The Stick-Fixed Static Neutral Point 25011.19.2 The Effect of the CG at the NP 25011.20 The Aerodynamic Centre (AC) 25111.21 The Centre of Gravity (CG) 25111.21.1 The CG Envelope 25111.21.1.1 CG Envelope Limitations 25111.21.1.2 CG Movement 25211.21.2 The Effect of CG at the Limits 25211.21.2.1 CG at the Forward Limit 25211.21.2.2 CG at the Aft Limit 25211.22 The Static Margin (SM) 25311.23 The Trim Point (TP) 25311.24 Longitudinal Dihedral 25311.25 Aeroplane-Design Variations 25511.26 The Effect of the Variables on Longitudinal Static Stability 25511.26.1 Elevator Deflection 25511.26.2 Trim 25611.26.3 The Fuselage 25711.26.4 Angle of Attack 25711.26.5 Configuration 25711.26.5.1 Trailing-Edge Flaps 25711.26.5.2 Undercarriage 25711.27 Stick-Fixed Longitudinal Static Stability 25711.27.1 Stick-Position Stability 25811.28 Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability 25811.28.1 Stick Force 25911.29 Certification Standard Stick-Force Requirements 26011.29.1 a. Class ‘A’ Aeroplanes CS 25.173(c) 26011.29.2 b. Class ‘B’ Aeroplanes CS 23.173(c) 26011.30 The Effect of CG Position on Stick Force 26011.31 Longitudinal Static Manoeuvre Stability 26111.31.1 The Manoeuvre Point 26111.32 Factors Affecting Stick Force 26211.33 Summary 26211.34 The Effect of Atmospheric Conditions 26411.34.1 Ice Accretion 26411.34.2 Heavy Rain 26411.34.3 Altitude 26411.35 The Factors Affecting Static Stability 264Self-Assessment Exercise 11 26712 Dynamic Stability 27712.1 Longitudinal Dynamic Stability 27912.1.1 The Phugoid 27912.1.2 Short-Period Oscillation 28012.1.3 Factors Affecting Longitudinal Dynamic Stability 28012.2 Lateral Dynamic Stability 28012.2.1 Sideslip 28112.2.2 Rolling 28112.2.3 Spiral 28112.2.4 Dutch Roll 28112.3 Spiral Instability 28112.4 Dutch Roll 28212.5 Asymmetric Thrust 28212.6 Aerodynamic Damping 28312.7 Summary 28312.8 The Factors Affecting Dynamic Stability 28312.8.1 a. General 28312.8.2 b. Longitudinal 28412.8.3 c. Lateral 284Self-Assessment Exercise 12 285Part 5 Manoeuvre Aerodynamics 28913 Level-Flight Manoeuvres 29113.1 The Manoeuvre Envelope 29113.1.1 The Flight Load Factor 29113.2 Manoeuvre-Envelope Limitations 29113.2.1 The Stalling Speed 29113.2.2 The ‘g’ Limitation 29213.2.3 The Manoeuvre-Envelope Limiting Parameters 29413.2.4 The Manoeuvre-Envelope Maximum-Speed Limitation 29413.3 Stalling and Design Speed Definitions 29413.4 Limiting Speeds 29613.5 The Load Factor 29613.6 The Gust Load Factor 29713.7 Buffet 29913.7.1 Low-Speed Buffet 29913.7.2 High-Speed Buffet 30013.8 The Buffet Onset Boundary Chart 30013.9 Turns 30213.9.1 The Load Factor in a Turn 30313.9.2 The Turn Radius 30313.9.3 Rate of Turn 30513.10 Turn and Slip Indications 306Self-Assessment Exercise 13 30714 Climb and Descent Aerodynamics 31514.1 Climbing Flight 31514.2 The Forces in a Climb 31514.3 The Effect of the Variables on the Climb 31614.3.1 Altitude 31614.3.2 Mass 31614.3.3 Flap Setting 31614.3.4 Wind Component 31714.4 Climb Gradient 31714.5 Climb-Gradient Calculations 31814.5.1 Method 1 31814.5.2 Method 2 32014.6 Rate of Climb 32114.7 Rate-of-Climb Calculations 32114.8 VX and VY 32314.9 VX 32314.10 VY 32514.11 Aircraft Ceiling 32614.12 VY at the Absolute Ceiling 32714.12.1 Piston/Propeller Aeroplanes 32814.12.2 Jet Aeroplanes 32814.13 The Effect of the Variables on VX and VY 32914.13.1 Mass 32914.13.2 Flap 32914.13.3 Altitude 32914.13.4 Temperature 32914.13.5 Wind Component 32914.14 The Effect of Climbing-Speed Variations 33114.15 Factors Affecting the Climb 33214.16 The Glide Descent 33214.16.1 The Glide Variables 33314.17 Gliding for Maximum Range 33414.18 The Effect of the Variables on a Glide Descent 33514.18.1 Speed 33514.18.2 Wind Component 33614.18.3 Mass 33714.18.4 Angle of Attack 33814.18.5 Flap 33814.19 Gliding for Maximum Endurance 33814.20 Climbing and Descending Turns 339Self-Assessed Exercise 14 341Part 6 Other Aerodynamic Considerations 34915 High-Speed Flight 35115.0.1 General Introduction 35115.1 High-Speed Definitions 35215.2 High-Speed Calculations 35215.3 The Shockwave 35315.3.1 Compressibility 35315.3.2 Shockwave Formation 35315.4 Air-Pressure-Wave Patterns 35415.4.1 Subsonic 35715.4.2 Sonic 35715.4.3 Supersonic 35715.5 The Shockwave Deflection Angle 35715.6 The High-Speed CP 35815.7 Critical Mach Number (MCRIT) 35815.8 The Effect of a Shockwave 35915.8.1 Wave Drag 35915.8.2 Drag Divergence Mach Number 36015.9 The Flying Controls 36015.10 The Effect of the Aerofoil Profile 36115.10.1 Thickness/Chord Ratio 36215.10.2 Wing Camber 36215.11 Swept Wings 36215.12 The Effect of Sweepback 36215.12.1 The Advantages of Sweepback 36215.12.1.1 Increased MCRIT 36315.12.1.2 Aerodynamic Effects 36315.12.2 The Disadvantages of Sweepback 36315.13 Remedial Design Features 36415.13.1 Low-Speed Ailerons 36515.13.2 High-Speed Ailerons 36515.14 Area Rule 36515.15 High-Speed-Flight Characteristics 36715.15.1 High-Speed Buffet 36715.15.2 Tuck Under 36715.15.3 The Shock Stall 36715.15.4 The Buffet Boundary 36815.15.5 Coffin Corner 36815.16 Speed Instability 36815.16.1 The Mach Trimmer 36915.16.2 Lateral Instability 36915.17 The Supercritical Wing 36915.18 Supersonic Airflow 37015.18.1 The Convex Corner Mach Wave (Expansion Wave) 37015.18.2 The Concave-Corner Shockwave 372Self-Assessment Exercise 15 37316 Propellers 38716.1 Propeller Definitions 38716.2 Basic Principles 38916.3 Factors Affecting Propeller Efficiency 39116.4 Airspeed 39116.4.1 Fixed-Pitch Propellers 39116.4.2 Variable-Pitch Propellers 39316.5 Power Absorption 39316.5.1 Propeller-Blade Shape 39316.5.1.1 Blade Length 39316.5.1.2 Blade Chord 39416.5.2 Propeller-Blade Number 39416.5.3 Solidity 39416.6 The Effects of a Propeller on Aeroplane Performance 39516.6.1 Torque 39516.6.2 Slipstream Effect 39616.6.3 Asymmetric Blade 39616.6.4 Gyroscopic Effect 39716.7 Propeller Forces and Moments 39816.7.1 Centrifugal Force (CF) 39816.7.2 Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) 39816.7.3 Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) 39816.8 Propeller-Blade Positions 40016.9 The Constant-Speed Unit (CSU) 40016.9.1 Propeller Windmilling 40116.9.2 Propeller Feathering 40116.9.3 Reverse Pitch 40316.10 The Effect of a Constant Speed Propeller on a Glide Descent 40316.11 Engine Failure 403Self-Assessment Exercise 16 40517 Operational Considerations 41117.1 Runway-Surface Contamination 41117.1.1 Surface Contaminants 41117.1.1.1 Standing Water 41117.1.1.2 Slush 41117.1.1.3 Wet Snow 41117.1.1.4 Dry Snow 41217.1.1.5 Very Dry Snow 41217.1.1.6 Compacted Snow 41217.1.1.7 Ice 41217.1.1.8 Specially Prepared Winter Runway 41217.1.1.9 Mixtures 41217.1.1.10 Contaminant Drag 41317.1.1.11 Water-Equivalent Depth 41317.2 The Effect of Runway Contamination 41317.2.1 Take-off 41317.3 Aeroplane Contamination 41517.3.1 The Effect of Heavy Rain 41517.3.2 The Effect of Propeller Icing 41517.3.3 The Effect of Airframe Icing 41617.3.4 The Effect of Airframe-Surface Damage 41617.3.5 The Effect of Turbulence 41617.4 Windshear 41717.4.1 The Effect of Windshear 41717.4.1.1 Energy Loss 41717.4.1.2 Energy Gain 41717.4.2 Downdraught 41817.4.2.1 Take-off 41817.4.2.2 Landing 41817.4.3 Countering Windshear 419Self-Assessment Exercise 17 421Part 7 Conclusion 42518 Summary 42718.1 Aerofoil-Profile Definitions 42718.2 Aerofoil-Attitude Definitions 42718.3 Wing-Shape Definitions 42818.4 High-Speed Definitions 42818.5 Propeller Definitions 42918.6 V Speeds 43018.7 PoF Formulae 43218.7.1 Drag 43318.7.2 Wing Loading/Load Factor 43318.7.3 Stalling Speed Calculations 43418.7.3.1 Mass Change 43418.7.3.2 Load Factor 43418.7.3.3 Turn 43418.7.4 Design Manoeuvre Speed (VA) 43418.7.5 Turn Details 43418.7.5.1 Radius of Turn 43418.7.5.2 Rate of Turn 43418.7.6 Climb Calculations 43418.7.7 Descent Calculations 43418.7.7.1 Maximum Glide Range 43518.7.8 Mach Angle (µ) Calculation 43518.8 Key Facts 43518.9 Stalling 43518.9.1 The Maximum Coefficient of Lift (CLmax) 43518.9.2 The Critical Angle 43518.9.3 The Stalling Speed 43618.10 Stability 43618.10.1 Static Stability 43618.10.2 Dynamic Stability 43618.10.3 The Stick Force 43818.10.4 The Gust Load Factor 43918.11 Propellers 43918.11.1 Propeller Efficiency 43918.11.2 Fixed Pitch Angle of Attack 43918.11.3 Propeller Gyroscopic Effect 44018.12 The Effect of the Variables on Performance 44018.12.1 Airframe Surface 44018.12.2 Airframe Surface 44018.12.3 Altitude 44118.12.4 Aspect Ratio 44118.12.5 Camber 44118.12.6 CG Position 44218.12.7 Flap 44218.12.8 Sweepback 44318.12.9 Dihedral 44318.12.10 Mass 443Self-Assessment Exercise 18 44519 Solutions (with page references) 447Self-Assessment Exercise 1 447Self-Assessment Exercise 2 447Self-Assessment Exercise 3 448Self-Assessment Exercise 4 448Self-Assessment Exercise 5 448Self-Assessment Exercise 6 449Self-Assessment Exercise 7 450Self-Assessment Exercise 8 451Self-Assessment Exercise 9 452Self-Assessment Exercise 10 453Self-Assessment Exercise 11 453Self-Assessment Exercise 12 454Self-Assessment Exercise 13 454Self-Assessment Exercise 14 45614.0.1 Vx &Vy Mathematical Proof 457Self-Assessment Exercise 15 458Self-Assessment Exercise 16 459Self-Assessment Exercise 17 459Self-Assessment Exercise 18 Turn Calculations 460Index 461