Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions

Gisli Gudjonsson is Professor of Forensic Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London and Head of Forensic Psychology Services, Maudsley Hospital, London

"…a comprehensive and authorative handbook that demonstrates the crucial relationship between research and practice…" (Internet Book Reviews, 17 January 2003) “…I am impressed with this handbook…an important addition to the bookshelves…” (Applied Cognitive Psychology, No.18 2004)

• About the Author xiiiSeries Preface xvPreface xviiAcknowledgements ixIntroduction 1Part I Interrogations and Confessions1 Interrogation Tactics and Techniques 7Police Training Manuals 7The Reid Technique 10The Format and Recording of the Confession 21The Context of the Interrogation 24American Research on Interrogation 31How Things Can Go Wrong During Interrogation 34Conclusions 362 Interrogation in Britain 38Irving’s Studies 39Softley’s Study 43Walsh’s Study 43Research at the University of Kent 44Baldwin’s Study 48British Training Manuals 51Conclusions 553 Persons at Risk during Interviews in Police Custody: the Royal Commission Studies 57The 1993 Royal Commission Study by Gudjonsson and Colleagues 58Who Confesses? 69Detainees’ Legal Rights 71General Conclusions 734 The Identification and Measurement of ‘Oppressive’ Police Interviewing Tactics in Britain 75John Pearse and Gisli H. GudjonssonBackground to the Research 75The Cases Analysed 77Methodology 79Interview Tactics 80Suspects’ Responses 83Methodological Issues 85Statistical Procedures 86Application of the Framework to Individual Cases 87The Heron Murder Case 96The Miller Murder Case 106Court Outcome 112Conclusions 1145 Why do Suspects Confess? Theories 115Factors Inhibiting Confession 115Theoretical Models of Confession 117Conclusions 1286 Why do Suspects Confess? Empirical Findings 130How Important are Confessions? 130How Commonly do Suspects Confess? 133Factors Associated with Admissions and Denials 140Self-Report Studies into Why Suspects Confess 151Conclusions 1567 Miscarriages of Justice and False Confessions 158Miscarriages of Justice 158Studies of Miscarriages of Justice 159The Leo–Ofshe Study 164Some Notorious British Cases 166Conclusions 1728 The Psychology of False Confession: Research and Theoretical Issues 173Definitions of False Confession 174The Frequency of False Confessions 174False, Retracted and Disputed Confessions 178The Innocent Pleading Guilty 184The Broader Context of False Confessions 186The Causes of False Confessions 193Theoretical Implications of the Different Types of False Confession 197The Ofshe–Leo Model of Confessions 203Differences between True and False Confessions 208A Proposed Modified Framework 211Recovered Memory and False Confession 212Conclusions 2159 The Psychology of False Confession: Case Examples 217Voluntary False Confessions 218Pressured–Compliant False Confessions 224Pressured–Internalized False Confessions 233Conclusions 242Part II Legal and Psychological Aspects10 The English Law on Confessions 247The Admissibility and Reliability of Confession Evidence 248The Voire Dire 258Issues Affecting Vulnerable Defendants 259The Admissibility of Expert Evidence 275Conclusions 28111 The American Law on Confessions 283Gisli H. Gudjonsson and Lorca MorelloThe Basic Law of Confessions 283Voluntariness and Mentally Vulnerable Suspects 288Challenging a Confession in Court 293Differences between English and American Law and Practice 304Conclusions 30612 The Psychological Assessment 308The Assessment Framework 309Psychological Vulnerabilities 316Learning Disability as a Vulnerability 320The Court Report and Oral Evidence 327Conclusions 33013 Suggestibility: Historical and Theoretical Aspects 332Theoretical Approaches 334Some Characteristics of Suggestion and Suggestibility 335Brief Historical Background to Suggestibility 336The Classification of Suggestibility 338Theories of Suggestibility 340Reinforcement and Suggestibility 343Suggestibility: a State or a Trait? 343Definition of Interrogative Suggestibility 344The Gudjonsson–Clark Theoretical Model 347Implications of the Model and Hypotheses 352External Evaluation of the Model 353Conclusions 35814 Interrogative Suggestibility: Empirical Findings 360The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales 361Suggestibility and Hypnotic Susceptibility 368Compliance 370Acquiescence 376Correlations between Suggestibility, Compliance and Acquiescence 378Suggestibility and Gender 379Suggestibility and Ethnic Background 380Suggestibility and Age 380Suggestibility and Intelligence 381Suggestibility and Memory 384Suggestibility and Anxiety 385Suggestibility and Impulsivity 388Suggestibility and the MMPI-2 389Suggestibility and Sleep Deprivation 389Suggestibility: Dissociation and Fantasy Proneness 390Suggestibility and Instructional Manipulation 391Suggestibility and the Experimenter Effect 392Suggestibility and Social Desirability 394Suggestibility and Coping Strategies 395Suggestibility and Assertiveness 396Suggestibility and Self-Esteem 396Suggestibility and Locus of Control 398Suggestibility and Field Dependence 399Suspiciousness and Anger 400Suggestibility and Test Setting 402Suggestibility and Previous Convictions 403Police Interviewing and Suggestibility 403Resisters and Alleged False Confessors 404Suggestibility and False Confessions 407Suggestibility and Eyewitness Testimony 410Suggestibility and Recovered Memory 411Conclusions 41215 The Effects of Drugs and Alcohol upon the Reliability of Testimony 415The Extent of the Problem 416Theoretical Perspectives 418The Effects of Intoxication and Withdrawal 421The Effects of Alcohol Withdrawal on Interrogative Suggestibility 428False Confessions to Murder by a Heroin Addict 430Conclusions 432Part III British Court of Appeal Cases16 The Court of Appeal 437The Beginning of Expert Psychological Testimony 440Conclusions 44117 The ‘Guildford Four’ and the ‘Birmingham Six’ 445Gisli H. Gudjonsson and J. A. C. MacKeithThe Guildford Four 445The Birmingham Six 452Conclusions 45618 Psychological Vulnerability 458Engin Raghip—The Beginning: Landmark Decision for Psychology 458Jacqueline Fletcher—Unidentified Borderline Intelligence 468Judith Ward—Personality Disorder 470David MacKenzie—Inability to Distinguish Facts from Fantasy 472Idris Ali—Pathological Lying 473George Long—Clinical Depression 476Patrick Kane—Anxiety and Compliance 479Andrew Evans—Misdiagnosed Psychogenic Amnesia 482John Roberts—Abnormal Compliance 492Ashley King—Abnormal Suggestibility and Compliance 493Darren Hall—Disorder in the Absence of a Psychiatric Diagnosis 495Ian Hay Gordon—Exploitation of Sexuality 499Peter Fell—Poor Self-Esteem 506Conclusions 51219 Police Impropriety 514Stephen Miller 515Alfred Allen (the ‘UDR Four’) 517The Carl Bridgewater Case 519Derek Bentley 520Conclusions 52220 Misleading Special Knowledge 523Stefan Kiszko 523The Darvell Brothers 530Donald Pendleton 533Conclusions 537Part IV Foreign Cases of Disputed Confessions21 Four High Profile American Cases 541Waneta Hoyt 541Joe Giarratano 550Henry Lee Lucas 554John Wille 563General Conclusions 57222 Canadian and Israeli Cases 573A Canadian Case of Non-Custodial Interrogation 573An Israeli Terrorist Case 582General Conclusions 58923 Murder in Norway: a False Belief Leading to a False Confession 590Background to the Case 590Pre-Trial (1997) Psychological Evaluation 594The First Trial 595The Psychological Evaluation Prior to the Appeal 596Interviews with Informants 602Mr A’s Strengths and Vulnerabilities 605The Interrogation and Confinement 606Repression and Psychogenic Amnesia 608The Appeal 609Conclusions 611Conclusions 615General Comments and Conclusions 615Interrogation 619Psychological Vulnerability 621True Confessions 622Retracted and False Confessions 623Appendix 628References 631Author Index 663Subject Index 672