Thomas R. Guskey is a professor of Educational Policy Studies and Evaluation at the University of Kentucky. He has taught at all school levels, worked as a school administrator in the Chicago Public Schools, and was the first director of the Center for the Improvement of Teaching and Learning, a national educational research center.

• Preface viii1. Getting Started 1What Do We Mean by Grading and Reporting? 1Are Grading and Reporting Essential? 3Why Are Educators Changing Their Grading and Reporting Methods? 4What Are the Purposes of Grading and Reporting? 6Why Should We Develop a Reporting System? 8How Do We Develop a Reporting System? 9How Do We Clarify the Purpose of Each Reporting Tool? 11Summary 122. Perceptions and Responsibilities 13Parents' Perceptions of Grading and Reporting 13Parents' Perceptions of Teachers 16Teachers' Perceptions of Grading and Reporting 17Sources of Teachers' Grading and Reporting Practices 18Students' Perceptions of Grading and Reporting 20The Points-Driven Academic Economy of Classrooms 21Summary 233. Challenges for Teachers in Grading and Reporting 25Limiting Subjectivity in Grading 25Balancing Instructional Concerns with Grading Requirements 26Establishing Grading Criteria: Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Criteria 27Clarifying Learning Criteria 28Deciding What Sources of Evidence to Use 31Relating Evidence to Purpose 38Summary 394. Grading and Reporting Methods 41Letter Grades 42Plus and Minus Letter Grades 48Categorical Grades 50Percentage Grades 54Standards-Based Grading 56Narratives and Comments 63Summary 685. Special Issues in Grading and Reporting 71Grading on the Curve 71Selecting Valedictorians 74Setting Grade Cutoffs 76Using Weighted Grades 81Dealing with Grade Inflation 83Summary 876. Developing Better Grading and Reporting Systems 89The Importance of Purpose 89The Challenge of Effective Communication 90Tools for a Comprehensive Reporting System 91Technology and Grading 106Summary 1117. Making Improvements in Grading and Reporting 113Working with Teachers 113Working with Children 118Gradual Change Strategies 124Conclusion 126References 127The Author 135Index 137