Ancient Maya, 6th Edition

Robert J. Sharer is Shoemaker Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, and Curator of the American Section at the university's Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. He is the author of Quirigua: A Classic Maya Center and Its Sculpture and Everyday Life in Maya Civilization, as well as two previous editions of The Ancient Maya. Loa P. Traxler is a Research Scientist in the American Section of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

"The Ancient Maya is the definitive statement for our current understanding of their time and place. It goes well beyond any other competing volume in its encompassing reach."—Journal of Anthropological Research "(T)he most comprehensive and most lavishly illustrated book on its subject."—Journal of Latin American Studies "The Ancient Maya has become a standard text on the study of Mayan culture and prehistory. Given the veritable explosion of research on the Maya, greater understanding of this past—yet living—culture has been realized."—Colonial Latin American Historical Review "(T)his work is surely a must-have reference for Mayanists of all fields. . . . The Ancient Maya is appropriate to scholars, graduate students, and upper-level undergraduates."—The Americas "This marvelous book shows why the Maya constitute one of the best "case studies" of social and political evolution. Rich with detail and new insights, the authors skillfully show that the Maya were on a par with other great civilizations such as the Greeks, Egyptians, and Chinese. This trulymonumental work has been updated to meet the needs of all readers -- from laymen to tourists to professional archaeologists -- and it should be on everyone's bookshelf to read and re-read."—Joyce Marcus, University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology "The Ancient Maya remains the best and most comprehensive single source on the prehispanic Maya. Easy to read and up-to-date, this new edition is an excellent choice for the general reader and for college classes."—E. Wyllys Andrews, Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University "The Ancient Maya is indispensable to anyone interested in the Maya--or in complex societies in general--because of its authoritative voice and encyclopedic scope. It is entertainingly written so that one can sit down and read through its chapters, while at the same time its tables,figures, and superb index and bibliography make it a dependable and essential reference tool. There simply isn't anything comparable to this book."—Prudence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University Carbondale "For nearly 60 years, sucessive editions of The Ancient Maya have served as benchmarks of our knowledge of Maya civilization. This new edition follows in the footsteps of its illustrious predecessors, presenting the most thorough and up-to-date synthesis of our knowledge of the Mayacivilization as revealed through archaeology, epigraphy, and art history. Scholars and the general public alike will be excited to find the latest archaeological discoveries and theories about topics like the rise of Maya civilization and the Classic Maya collapse. Thanks to significant reorganization, the text addresses the history of Maya archaeology and epigraphy, thus contextualizing the study of the ancient Maya within the larger field of archaeology. In short, this book remains the definitive synthesis of our knowledge of Precolumbian Mayacivilization."—Jason Yaeger, University of Wisconsin-Madison

• Contents Prefacexxxx A Note on Names, Pronunciations, and Conventionsxxxx Introduction1 Discovery and Conquest by Europeans The Fate of the Maya Heritage The Meaning of Maya Civilization Foreign Domination and Rebirth of the Maya Heritage The Destruction of the Maya Heritage Bibliographic Summary 1. The Setting of Maya Civilization Natural and Cultural Subdivisions of the Maya Area The Pacific Coastal Plain The Highlands The Southern Maya Highlands The Northern Maya Highlands The Lowlands The Southern Lowlands The Central Lowlands The Northern Lowlands The Consequences of Ecological Diversity Sidebars : Origin of Mayan Languages, The Original Maya Homeland, Cacao, Stone Tools, Jade, Feathers, Eccentric Flints, Textiles. Bibliographic Summary 2. Archaeology and Maya Civilization Reconstructing the Past Changing Perspectives on the Maya Past Etic and Emic Views of the Past Perspective and Goals of this Book Basic Concepts Models of Past Societies Development of Complex Society and Civilization The Evolution of Civilization Understanding the Evolution of Maya Civilization The Maya Economy Subsistence and Population Growth Specialization and Trade Economic Distinctions Social and Political Systems Social Stratification Polities and Kings Competition and Warfare Maya Ideology and Religion The Ancient Maya World Elite and Non-elite Views of the Ancient Maya Chronology Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Pottery and Archaeology, Maya Archaeological Projects (Copan, Chichen Itza, Uaxactun, Tikal, Mayapan, Barton Ramie). Chapter 3: History and Maya Civilization Time and Maya History Arithmetic The Calendar The Almanac of 260 Days The Haab of 365 Days The Calendar Round of 52 Years The Long Count Distance Numbers Period-Ending Dates and Count of the K'atuns Measuring the Cycles of Time The Sun and Moon Venus Other Planets, the Stars and the Constellations Recording the Cycles of Time Sources of Maya History The Maya Chronicles Ancient Writing Systems PreColumbian Maya Texts The Maya Codices The Maya Inscriptions The Language of the Classic Maya texts Ancient Maya Writing The Discovery of Maya History The Discovery of Phoneticism in Maya Writing Milestones in Decipherment Contributions to Understanding the Ancient Maya History and Maya Civilization Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Year Bearers, Correlation of the Maya Calendar, Mayan Dictionaries and Literature, The Structure of Mayan Languages, Classic Maya Texts, Pioneers of Decipherment. Chapter 4: The Origins of Maya Civilization The Chronology of Pre-Columbian Development The Archaic: Origins of Highland and Coastal Cultural Traditions The Early Preclassic: Agriculture, Warfare, and Evidence of Complex Society Preclassic Developments on the Gulf Coast of Mexico Preclassic Developments in Highland Mexico Summary of Archaic and Early Preclassic Developments Patterns in the Evolution of Mesoamerican Civilization Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Early Preclassic Maya Pottery, Monumental Architecture, Origins of Carved Monuments. Chapter 5: The Emergence of Civilization in the Middle Preclassic The Emergence of Complex Societies Markers of Complex Societies The Pacific Plain in the Middle Preclassic Middle Preclassic Commodities and Monuments The Highlands in the Middle Preclassic The Lowlands in the Middle Preclassic Middle Preclassic Communities The Rise of Complex Society in the Lowlands Further Middle Preclassic Developments in the Lowlands Summary: The Middle Preclassic Precursors of Maya Civilization Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Mirrors and Mosaics, Middle Preclassic Maya Pottery, Maya Monuments and Sculpture; La Blanca, Chalchuapa, Kaminaljuyu, Salama Valley, Cuello, K'axob, Nakbe, Ball Courts, Masonry Architecture Chapter 6: The Origins of Maya States in the Late Preclassic Late Preclassic Civilization and Writing Traditions The Late Preclassic Isthmian Tradition The Late Preclassic Southern Maya Southern Maya Pottery and Monument Traditions Late Preclassic Rulers in the Southern Maya Area Late Preclassic Civilization in the Southern Maya Area Highland-Lowland Interaction in the Preclassic The Maya Lowlands in the Late Preclassic Regional Hegemony in the Central Lowlands Late Preclassic Rulers in the Maya Lowlands Patterns of Late Preclassic Rulership Preclassic Developments in the Northern Lowlands Late Preclassic Lowland Maya Civilization Decline in the Terminal Preclassic Summary: Reconstructing the Maya Preclassic Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Izapa, El Ujuxte, Abaj Takalik, Late Preclassic Maya Pottery, El Mirador, San Bartolo, Cerros, Komchen. Chapter 7: The Expansion of Maya States in the Early Classic The Early Classic and the Origins of Maya Civilization The Southern Maya Area in the Classic Period Early Classic Changes on the Pacific Coast Early Classic Changes in the Highlands Teotihuacan and the Maya The End of Teotihuacan Contacts in the Southern Maya Area The Classic Transition in the Lowlands The Expansion of States in the Maya Lowlands Divine Kings and Royal Houses Titles and Emblems of Royal Power Competition and Warfare in the Classic Lowlands The Early Classic in the Maya Lowlands The Rise of Tikal in the Early Classic (ca. 100-378) Neighboring Centers in the Central Lowlands (ca. 328-416) Strangers in the Lowlands (378-456) Expansion into the Southeastern Area (406-437) Archaeology, History, and Copan's Dynastic Founding (ca. 400-470) The Founder of Quirigua The Rise of the Calakmul Dynasty (435-561) The Calakmul-Caracol Alliance Prosperity and Problems at Tikal (458-562) The Defeat of Tikal (562) Summary: The Early Classic States of the Maya Lowlands Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Early Classic Maya Pottery, Tikal, Uaxactun, Rio Azul, Copan, Quirigua, Calakmul, Caracol, Becan, Nakum, Yaxha. Chapter 8: The Apogee of Maya States in the Late Classic Ascendancy of Calakmul (562-695) Confrontation in the Petexbatun The Naranjo Wars The Resurgence of Tikal (682-768) Defeat of Calakmul (695) Breaking of the Calakmul Alliance Rise and Fall of the Petexbatun Kingdom (682-802) The End of the Calakmul Dynasty (695-909) Recovery and Decline at Caracol (798-859) The End of the Tikal Dynasty (768-869) Expansion of the Usumacinta Polities Birth and Rebirth of the Piedras Negras Dynasty History and Propaganda at Yaxchilan Expansion of the Western Polities Origins of the Palenque Dynasty Apogee and Defeat at Palenque Recovery and Decline at Palenque Late Classic Apogee at Tonina Expansion of the Southeastern Polities Growth and Prosperity at Copan A Tale of Two Cities Revitalization and Decline at Copan The Last Days of Quirigua Summary: Development of States in the Late Classic Lowlands Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Late Classic Maya Pottery, Naranjo, Dos Pilas, Aguateca, Altar De Sacrificios, Piedras Negras, Yaxchilan, Bonampak, Palenque, Tonina, Cities Without History. Chapter 9: Transformations in the Terminal Classic Decline in the Classic Heartland Patterns of Change The Collapse Issue The Collapse of Classic Maya States Explanations for the Collapse Theories Emphasizing Catastrophic Events Theories Emphasizing Problems within Maya Society Theories Emphasizing Foreign Intervention Theories Emphasizing Environmental Changes A Scenario for the Collapse of the Classic Maya States Overpopulation Warfare Drought The Breakup of Classic Polities Abandonment and Migration Survival and Revival of Classic Enclaves Transformation in the Terminal Classic The Fate of Divine Kings The New Lowland Economy The New Power Brokers The Transitional Regional Traditions The Rise of the Northern Lowland Polities Polities in Northwestern Yucatan The Puuc Region Salt production and Trade Polities in Northeastern Yucatan The Rise of Chichen Itza The Itza Economy The Itza State The Cult of K'uk'ulkan Changes in the Southern Maya Area Summary: Culmination and Transition in the Terminal Classic Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Terminal Classic Maya Pottery, Xunantunich, Seibal, Uxmal, Sayil, Kabah, Dzibilchaltun, Coba, Chichen Itza, Metalwork. Chapter 10: Reformulation and Revival in the Postclassic The Downfall of Chichen Itza The Rise of Mayapan The Mayapan State The Fall of Mayapan and the Rise of Petty States The East Coast of Yucatan Revival of Fortunes in the Central Lowlands The Southern Maya Area in the Postclassic Summary: Reformulation and Revival in the Postclassic Overview: Changing Perspectives on Maya Civilization Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Postclassic Maya Pottery, Mayapan, Tulum, Santa Rita Corozal, The Mythical City of Tollan. Chapter 11: The Ancient Maya Economy The Political Economy The Social Economy Mobilization of Labor Ancient Maya Subsistence Hunting and Gathering Animal Husbandry Extensive Agriculture Intensive Agriculture Reconstructing the Patterns of Subsistence Production of Goods Distribution of Goods The Importance of Trade Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Long-Distance Trade Bibliographic Summary Sidebar: The Swidden Hypothesis; Colha. Chapter 12: The Organization of Maya Society Reconstructing The Social Landscape Maya Society in the Pre-Columbian Era Personal Appearance Birth and Early Childhood Puberty Life and Death Marriage and the Family Ancient Maya Households Settlement in the Maya Lowlands Chronological Control Population Reconstructions Social Stratification Residential and Descent Groups Residential Groups and the House Model Reconstructing The Political Landscape Divine Kings and the Hierarchy of Power Hierarchy within Polities Hierarchy among Polities Maya Polities Location and Power Size and Power Number and Size of Polities Cycles of Growth and Decline State Organizational Models The Basis of Political Power Bibliographic Summary Sidebars: Ceren, Maya Society In Postclassic Yucatan, Maya Society in the Postclassic Highlands. Chapter 13: Maya Ideology and Religion Maya World View Origins of Maya Ideology Transformations by Outsiders Cosmology Creation Myths The Maya Universe Afterlife and Ancestors Maya Deities Rituals and Ceremonies Royal Rituals of the Classic Period Rituals of the Postclassic and Conquest Periods Divination and Altered Consciousness Human Sacrifice The Thirteen K'atun Endings Other Calendrical Ceremonies The Ideological Foundations of Maya civilization Bibliographic Summary Epilogue: The Conquest of the Maya Appendix: Dates For K'atun and Half-K'atun Endings Reference Material Bibliography Illustration Credits Index Tables Table 2.1Chiefdoms and States Table 2.2Pre-Columbian Chronological Periods in the Maya Area Table 3.1Yucatec Mayan Sounds and Transcriptions Table 3.2Names of Maya Rulers Table 7.1Dynastic Chronology of Tikal Table 7.2Dynastic Chronology of Copan Table 7.3Dynastic Chronology of Calakmul Table 7.4Dynastic Chronology of Caracol Table 8.1Dynastic Chronology of Naranjo Table 8.2Dynastic Chronology of Dos Pilas Table 8.3Dynastic Chronology of Piedras Negras Table 8.4Dynastic Chronology of Yaxchilan Table 8.5Dynastic Chronology of Palenque Table 8.6Dynastic Chronology of Tonina Table 8.7Dynastic Chronology of Quirigua Table 10.1Dynastic History of the Postclassic K'iche Maya Table 11.1Common Wild Animal Resources Table 11.2Common Plant Cultigens Table 11.3Production and Distribution in the Ancient Maya Economy Table 11.4Distribution Modes in the Maya Economy (Lowlands) Table 11.5Principal Trade Goods from the Maya Area Table 11.6Goods Traded to or through the Maya Area Table 12.1Density of Structures (Selected Lowland Sites) Table 12.2Late Classic Density of Structures (Selected Lowland Sites and Rural Areas) Table 12.3Population Estimates (Selected Lowland Sites and Rural Areas) Table 12.4Relative Population Size as Percentage of Maximum Population Estimates at Selected Lowland Sites Table 12.5Relative Population Size as Percentage of Maximum Population Estimates at Selected Rural Areas Table E.1Summary of Events of the Spanish Conquest Period Table A.1Correlation of Maya and Gregorian Chronologies Figures Frontispiece: Copan Maize god Introduction In.1.The principal buildings of Tikal, Guatemala In.2Temple IV, the tallest structure at Tikal In.3Archaeologists excavating at Tikal and at Tancah (above) Trik & Rainey in Tikal Temple II (below) Miller & Stuart at Tancah In.4Weaving with the back-strap loom, Huehuetenango In.5Modern market at Chichicastenango, El Quiche In.6Portraits of Lacandon Maya from Chiapas, Mexico In.7Portraits of Yucatec Maya from Quintana Roo In.8Portraits of Yucatec, Quiche, and Mam Maya (top four) Yucatec & Quiche portraits (lower left) San Pedro portrait In.9Portraits of Tzotzil Maya from Chiapas In.10Maya teachers in the classroom In.11Destruction wrought by looting at Naachtun, Guatemala In.12Desecration of Stela 1 at Jimbal, Guatemala, by looters Chapter 1 The Setting 1.1Map of the Maya Area 1.2Map of Mayan languages 1.3Subgrouping of Mayan languages 1.4Map of surface elevations in the Maya Area 1.5Map of Mean annual temperatures in Maya Area 1.6Map of Mean annual rainfall in the Maya area 1.7Pacific Coast mangrove growth 1.8Southern Highlands: Agua volcano 1.9Southern Highlands: house buried by volcanic ash 1.10Northern Highlands: view of the Salam Valley 1.11Southern lowlands: forest & Usumacinta river 1.12Central lowlands: tropical forest 1.13Central lowlands: Lake Peten Itza 1.14Central lowlands: savanna 1.15Northern lowlands: low forest 1.16Northern lowlands: low hills 1.17Northern lowlands: cenote Chapter 2 Archaeology and Maya Civilization 2.1Analysis of Maya pottery (NAA chart from Copan) 2.2Drawing of Jaguar Throne at Palenque from del Rio 1822 2.3Alfred Maudslay's research at Copan 2.4Tikal Project multidisciplinary research supplied by aircraft 2.5Contemporary archaeological excavations Chapter 3 History and Maya Civilization 3.1Glyphs for completion ("zero") and numbers 3.2Examples of positional mathematics 3.3Glyphs for the Maya time periods 3.4Glyphs for the Maya days 3.5Glyphs for the Maya months 3.6Diagram of the 260-day almanac & solar year 3.7The Mesoamerican 52-year period 3.8Example of a Maya Long Count date 3.9Maya Period-ending date 3.10K'atun wheel after Landa 3.11Astronomical alignment at Copan, Honduras 3.12Astronomical observations from the Mexican codices 3.13Recording Maya history (codex and scribe) 3.14Maya "zodiac" from the Paris Codex 3.15Almanacs from the Madrid Codex 3.16Maya Glyphs with historical meaning 3.17Emblem glyph affixes and main signs 3.18Title glyphs for elite women 3.19The Landa "alphabet" 3.20A syllabary of Maya phonetic glyphs 3.21Syllabic spellings and complements 3.22Glyphs for way ("spirit companion") 3.23Postclassic direction and Color glyphs 3.24Title glyphs for Maya rulers and secondary lords 3.25Translation by Simon Martin of Seibal Stela 10 text Chapter 4 The Origins of Maya Civilization 4.1Early chipped stone tools from Belize 4.2Early Preclassic pottery from Copan, Honduras 4.3Middle Preclassic house remains at La Venta, Mexico 4.4Monument 12 from Chalchuapa, El Salvador 4.5Monument 3 from San Jose Mogote, Oaxaca, Mexico Chapter 5 Emergence in the Middle Preclassic 5.1Stela 11 at Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala 5.2Map of La Blanca, Guatemala 5.3La Blanca Mound 1 5.4La Blanca Monument 1 5.5Map of El Ujuxte, Guatemala 5.6Takalik Abaj Monument 1 5.7Map of Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala 5.8Kaminaljuyu Monument 65 5.9El Porton, Guatemala, excavation of Monument 1 5.10Tomb at Los Mangales, Guatemala 5.11Middle Preclassic platforms at Cuello, Belize 5.12K'axob, Belize; house platforms and subfloor burials 5.13Blackman Eddy, Belize. Str. B1 Stratigraphic Section 5.14Middle Preclassic houses at Blackman Eddy, Belize 5.15Middle Preclassic stages Str. B1, Blackman Eddy, Belize 5.16Map of Nakbe, Guatemala 5.17Stela 1, Nakbe, Guatemala 5.18Cross sections of Maya Corbeled Vaults 5.19Plans of Maya Structures Chapter 6 Origin of States in the Late Preclassic 6.1Stela 1, La Mojarra, Veracruz, Mexico 6.2Tuxtla Statuette 6.3Fragment of Tres Zapotes Stela C 6.4Map of Izapa, Chiapas, Mexico 6.5Izapa Stela 21 6.6View of Kaminaljuyu 6.7Kaminaljuyu Stela 10 6.8Kaminaljuyu E-III-3 tomb 6.9Takalik Abaj Stela 2 6.10Takalik Abaj Stela 5 6.11Map of Chocola, Guatemala 6.12Chocola Monument 1 6.13Chocola captive sculpture 6.14Chalchuapa Monument 1 6.15Salama Valley Monument 16 6.16Late Preclassic Pot Belly sculptures 6.17El Baul Stela 1 6.18Map of Western Group at El Mirador 6.19El Mirador El Tigre 6.20El Mirador Structure 34 6.21El Mirador Stela 2 6.22Drawing of Lamanai Structure N10-43 6.23Cave sculpture at Loltun, Yucatan, Mexico 6.24Map of San Bartolo, Guatemala 6.25San Bartolo Str. 1 tunnel section 6.26Map of Cerros, Belize 6.27Cerros Str. 5C-2nd 6.28Late Preclassic texts; Kichpanha, & Pomona flare 6.29Uaxactun E-VII & E-VII-sub 6.30Uaxactun E-VII-sub masks 6.31Uaxactun H Group mask 6.32Mirador Group platforms at Dzibilchaltun 6.33Structure 450 at Komchen, Yucatan, Mexico 6.34Structure 500 at Komchen, Yucatan, Mexico 6.35Caldera of Ilopango, El Salvador 6.36Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan, Mexico 6.37Early Classic Teotihuacan-style pottery Chapter 7 Expansion of Maya States in the Early Classic 7.1Map of Tikal, Guatemala 7.2Aerial view of Tikal 7.3Tikal North Acropolis trench 7.4Tikal North Acropolis section 7.5Tikal North Acropolis Structure 5D-22 7.6Tikal Stela 29 7.7Tikal Stela 39 7.8Tikal Stela 26 7.9Tikal Central Acropolis plan 7.10Stela 9 at Uaxactun, Guatemala 7.11Uaxactun Group E 7.12Uaxactun Stela 5 7.13Uaxactun Str. B-XIII mural 7.14Map of Rio Azul, Guatemala 7.15Rio Azul Tomb 1 murals 7.16Tikal Stela 4 7.17Tikal Stela 31 7.18Tikal Burial 48 7.19Map of Copan, Honduras 7.20Stratigraphic section of the Copan Acropolis 7.21Copan Altar Q 7.22Copan Hieroglyphic Stairway 7.23Copan Hunal Structure 7.24Copan Motmot Marker 7.25Copan Hunal Tomb 7.26Copan Hunal Tomb Vessels 7.27Copan Hunal Tomb Shell mosaic 7.28Copan Margarita Tomb 7.29Copan SubJaguar Tomb 7.30Zoomorph P at Quirigua, Guatemala 7.31Quirigua Monument 26 7.32Map of Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico 7.33Map of Caracol, Belize 7.34Caracol Altar 21 7.35Caracol Caana Complex 7.36Tikal Stela 9 7.37Tikal Stela 23 7.38Tikal Stela 17 7.39Aerial view of Becan, Campeche, Mexico Chapter 8 Apogee in the Late Classic 8.1Map of Dos Pilas 8.2Naranjo Stela 24 and Stela 22 8.3Tikal Stela 30 and Altar 14 8.4Tikal Temple I lintel 8.5Tikal Str 5D-57 stucco of Jasaw Chan K'awiil and capture 8.6Tikal Stela 16 8.7Tikal Temple I section of Burial 116 8.8Tikal Temple I 8.9Tikal Temple I tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil 8.10Tikal Temple IV lintels 8.11Tikal Stela 20 8.12Aguateca, Guatemala, view from escarpment 8.13Dos Pilas, Guatemala, before and after its downfall 8.14Map of Aguateca 8.15Aguateca Str. M7-22 (storage room in situ) 8.16Aguateca Str. M8-4 plan of in situ materials 8.17Aguateca Str. M8-4 mask in situ; flute & headband 8.18Punta de Chimino, Guatemala 8.19Calakmul Stela 51 8.20Caracol Stela 17 8.21Tikal Twin Pyramid Group 4E-4 8.22Tikal Stela 22 and Altar 10 8.23Tikal Temple III lintel 8.24Stelae from Piedras Negras, Guatemala 8.25Piedras Negras Wall Panel 3 8.26Piedras Negras throne 8.27Map of Yaxchilan, Chiapas, Mexico 8.28Yaxchilan Lintels 24, 25, & 26 8.29Yaxchilan Stela 11 8.30Yaxchilan Lintels 1, 2, & 3 8.31Yaxchilan Lintel 8 8.32Map of Bonampak, Chiapas, Mexico 8.33Bonampak Structure 1 8.34Aerial view of Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico 8.35Map of Palenque 8.36Palenque Palace stucco panels 8.37Palenque Temple of the Inscriptions 8.38Palenque Tomb of Pakal 8.39Palenque Tomb of Pakal sarcophagus 8.40Palenque Tomb of Pakal sarcophagus lid 8.41Palenque Temple of the Sun 8.42Palenque Temple of the Cross interior shrine 8.43Palenque Temple of the Cross tablet 8.44Palenque Palace Tablet 8.45View of Tonina, Chiapas, Mexico 8.46Tonina Stela 12 8.47Tonina Monument 122 8.48Copan Stela P 8.49Copan Structure 10L-22 8.50Copan Stela H and Stela A 8.51Copan Ball Court 8.52Quirigua Great Plaza 8.53Quirigua Stela E 8.54Copan Structure 10L-22A 8.55Copan Structure 10L-18 8.56Copan Altar L 8.57Altun Ha, Belize Structure B-4 8.58Altun Ha jade head of K'inich Ajaw Chapter 9 Transformations in the Terminal Classic 9.1Xunantunich, Belize; view of Str. A-6 9.2Seibal Round Structure 9.3Seibal Stela 19 9.4Seibal Structure A-3 9.5Seibal Stela 10 9.6View of Str. 1, Xpuhil, Campeche, Mexico 9.7View of Str. II, Chicanna, Campeche, Mexico 9.8Palace at Edzna, Campeche, Mexico 9.9Palace arch, Labna, Yucatan, Mexico 9.10Map of Uxmal, Yucatan, Mexico 9.11Uxmal Stela 14 9.12Aerial view of Uxmal 9.13Uxmal Governor's Palace 9.14Uxmal Nunnery Quadrangle 9.15Uxmal Adivino 9.16Kabah, Yucatan, Mexico, Palace of Masks 9.17Kabah Doorjamb 9.18Kabah causeway arch 9.19Map of Sayil, Yucatan, Mexico 9.20Sayil excavation of domestic structure 9.21Map of Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan, Mexico 9.22Dzibilchaltun Central Group 9.23Dzibilchaltun Temple of the Seven Dolls 9.24Coba, Yucatan, Mexico, aerial view 9.25Coba Nohoch Mul 9.26Coba sacbe 9.27Ek Balam, Yucatan, Mexico, Str. 1 9.28Aerial view of Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico 9.29Map of Chichen Itza 9.30Chichen Itza Las Monjas group 9.31Chichen Itza Caracol 9.32Chichen Itza plan of the Caracol 9.33Chichen Itza El Castillo 9.34Chichen Itza Red Jaguar Throne 9.35Chichen Itza Great Ball Court & Temple of Jaguars 9.36Chichen Itza Temple of the Jaguars mural 9.37Chichen Itza Tzompantli 9.38Chichen Itza Temple of the Warriors 9.39Chichen Itza Temple of the Warriors mural 9.40Chichen Itza turquoise mosaic 9.41Chichen Itza El Mercado 9.42Chichen Itza Sacred Cenote 9.43Gold work from Chichen Itza 9.44Motifs from gold disks from Chichen Itza 9.45Isla Cerritos aerial view 9.46Bilbao, Guatemala Monument 3 Chapter 10 Reformulation and Revival in the Postclassic 10.1Map of Mayapan, Yucatan, Mexico 10.2Map of Central Mayapan 10.3Mayapan Castillo 10.4Mayapan Round Temple 10.5Mayapan-style effigy incensario 10.6Map of Island of Cozumel 10.7Tulum view from the north 10.8Tulum Structure 16 mural 10.9Tulum El Castillo (after Catherwood) 10.10Tulum El Castillo and Structure 5 10.11Tulum Structure 5 mural 10.12Tulum view of Structure 45 10.13Mural from Santa Rita Corozal, Belize 10.14Zaculeu, Guatemala, view of site 10.15Map of Utatlan, Guatemala 10.16Utatlan Temple of Awilix 10.17Structure 3 at Iximche, Guatemala 10.18Mixcu Viejo, Guatemala, view of site Chapter 11 The Economy 11.1Sowing maize from the Madrid Codex 11.2Ceren, preserved Late Classic maize field 11.3Map of agricultural terraces at Caracol, Belize 11.4Edzna aerial view of canal system 11.5Pulltrouser Swamp, Belize, view of relic raised fields 11.6Pulltrouser Swamp excavations 11.7Pulltrouser Swamp aerial view of relic raised fields 11.8Rio Candelaria aerial view of relic raised fields 11.9Dzemul aerial view of Xtampul salt pans Chapter 12 Organization of Maya Society 12.1Ancient Maya clothing: loincloths from Classic monuments 12.2Ancient Maya clothing: sandals from Classic monuments 12.3Modern Maya huipils 12.4Late Classic burial practice: Uaxactun Structure A-1 12.5Maya House Mound at Sayil, Yucatan, Mexico 12.6Ancient Maya residential group east of Xpuhil 12.7Map of Ceren, El Salvador 12.8Ceren, Reconstruction of Household 1 12.9Schematic plans of Maya settlement units 12.10Map of Caracol Causeway System Chapter 13 Ideology 13.1Scenes of human sacrifice 13.2Ritual burning of copal by the Lacandon Maya 13.3Maya deities governing the world from the codices 13.4Maya deities depicted in Postclassic codices 13.5Maya deities depicted in Classic sources 13.6Scepters and other regalia 13.7Classic eccentric chipped flint from Copan 13.8Tikal incised bone from tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil 13.9Bloodletting rituals from the Madrid Codex 13.10Sacrificial knife from Chichen Itza 13.11Graffiti from Tikal Temple II Color Plates 1(a)Tikal Jade Vessels 1(b)Tikal Jade mosaic mask 1(c)Tikal jade jaguar 2(a)Copan Ante jade figurine Copan 2(b)Matching jade plaques 2(c)Catherwood print of Governor's Palace at Uxmal 3(a)Dresden Codex page 3(b)Cival stucco mask 4(a)San Bartolo photo of Tamale woman attendant 4(b)San Bartolo Mural: Maize God with attendants 5(a)San Bartolo Mural: Inauguration Scene 5(b)Copan Yehnal Structure Mask 6(a) Copan Margarita stucco facade 6(b) Copan Margarita Tomb vessel 7(a)Copan Rosalila replica 7(b)Copan SubJaguar Tomb vases 8(a) Tikal carved bone (portrait of Jasaw Chan K'awiil) 8(b) Tikal Polychrome vessel from (Bu. 196) 8(c)Palenque Palace 9(a)Palenque Polychrome censer 9(b)Jaina Figurine 9(c)Nebaj Vase 10 & 11Bonampak Str. 1 Room 1 Murals 12 & 13Bonampak Str. 1 Room 2 Murals 14 & 15Bonampak Str. 1 Room 3 Murals 16(a)Palace at Sayil, Yucatan, Mexico 16(b)Chichen Itza mural in the Temple of the Warriors Boxes Chapter 1: The Setting of Maya Civilization 1.1Origin of Mayan Languages 1.2The Original Maya Homeland 1.3Cacao 1.4Stone Tools 1.5Jade 1.6Feathers 1.7Eccentric Flints 1.8Textiles