Challenges in Corrosion

V. S. Sastri PhD. has over 35 years experience in Corrosion and Chemical Processes. Since 1994 he has been a consultant for Sai Ram Consultants. Dr. Sastri has written six books, approximately 200 papers in scientific journals, and has edited proceedings for five international conferences of the Metallurgical Society of CIM.

• Preface xviiAcknowledgments xix1 Introduction and Forms of Corrosion 11.1 General or Uniform or Quasi-Uniform Corrosion 11.2 Galvanic Corrosion 41.2.1 Factors involved in Galvanic Corrosion 81.2.2 Galvanic Series and Corrosion 91.2.3 The Nature of the Metal/Solution Interface 101.2.4 Polarization of the Galvanic Cell 101.2.5 Testing of Galvanic Corrosion 131.3 Stray Current Corrosion 131.4 Localized Corrosion 141.4.1 Pitting Corrosion 151.4.2 Poultice Corrosion 171.4.3 Crevice Corrosion 171.4.4 Filiform Corrosion 181.4.5 Breakdown of Passivation 191.4.6 Coatings and Localized Corrosion 201.4.7 Electrochemical Studies of Localized Corrosion 201.4.8 Potentiostatic Methods 221.4.9 Prevention of Localized Corrosion 221.4.10 Corrosion Tests 231.4.11 Changes in Mechanical Properties 231.4.12 Electrochemical Techniques for the Study of Localized Corrosion 241.4.13 Electrochemical Impedance and Localized Corrosion 241.4.14 The SRET 251.5 Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion 251.5.1 The Influence of Metallurgical Properties in Aqueous Media 251.6 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) 361.6.1 Growth and Metabolism 361.6.2 Environments 371.6.3 Biological Corrosion in Freshwater Environments 371.6.4 Biological Corrosion in Marine Environments 371.6.5 Industries Affected 381.6.6 Role of Some Microbiological Species in Corrosion 381.6.7 Attack by Organisms Other than SRB 391.6.8 Production of Biofilms 401.6.9 Production of Sulfides 411.6.10 Formation of Organic and Inorganic Acids 411.6.11 Gases from Organisms 411.6.12 MIC of Materials 411.6.13 Wood and Polymers 411.6.14 Hydrocarbons 421.6.15 Types of Corrosion of Metals and Alloys 421.6.16 Microbiological Impacts and Testing 431.6.17 Recognition of Microbiological Corrosion 431.7 Mechanically Assisted Corrosion 441.7.1 Corrosion and Wear 441.7.2 Abrasion 451.7.3 Wear Impact 451.7.4 Corrosion Effects 461.7.5 Wear Damage Mechanisms 461.7.6 Adhesive Wear 461.7.7 Abrasive Wear 471.7.8 Fatigue Wear 471.7.9 Impact Wear 471.7.10 Chemical or Corrosive Wear 481.7.11 Oxidative Wear 491.7.12 Electric-Arc-Induced Wear 501.7.13 Erosion–Corrosion 501.7.14 Impingement 511.7.15 Effect of Turbulence 521.7.16 Galvanic Effect 521.7.17 Water Droplet Impingement Erosion 521.7.18 Cavitation 531.7.19 Cavitation Erosion 531.7.20 Impacting Bubbles 541.7.21 Prevention 551.7.22 Fretting Corrosion 551.7.23 Mechanism of Fretting Corrosion 561.7.24 Modeling Fretting Corrosion 571.7.25 Fretting CF 581.7.26 Prevention of Fretting Wear 581.7.27 Testing 591.7.28 Measurement of Wear and Corrosion 591.7.29 Galling Stress 591.7.30 CF 591.7.31 Morphology of CF Ruptures 601.7.32 Important Factors of CF 611.7.33 Stresses 611.7.34 Stress Ratio 621.7.35 Material Factors 621.7.36 Mechanism of CF 631.7.37 Crack Initiation 641.7.38 Crack Propagation 651.7.39 Prevention of CF 661.8 Environmentally Induced Cracking (EIC) 671.8.1 Testing of CF 671.8.2 Types of Tests 681.8.3 Sampling in CF Tests 681.8.4 SCC 691.8.5 Morphology 701.8.6 Some Key Factors of SCC 711.8.7 Material Properties in SCC 721.8.8 Potential–pH Diagram and SCC 721.8.9 Active–Passive Behavior and Susceptible Zone of Potentials 731.8.10 Electrode Potential and its Effect on Crack Growth 741.8.11 Prevention of Hydrogen Damage 87References 892 Corrosion Costs 952.1 Introduction 952.2 Data Collection and Economic Analysis 962.2.1 The Uhlig Report (United States of America 1949) 962.2.2 The Hoar Report (United Kingdom 1970) 962.2.3 Report of the Committee on Corrosion and Protection (Japan 1977) 1002.2.4 The Battelle-NBS Report (United States, 1978) 1022.2.5 The Economics of Corrosion in Australia 1082.2.6 Kuwait (1995) 1142.2.7 Costs of Corrosion in Other Countries 1152.3 Tribology 1232.3.1 Economies of Wear and Corrosion in the Canadian Industry 1232.3.2 Strategies Against Wear and Friction 124References 1263 Corrosion Causes 1273.1 Introduction 1273.2 Corrosion in Conventional Concrete Bridges 1273.3 Corrosion of Prestressed Concrete Bridges 1273.4 Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete 1283.5 Mechanism of Corrosion and Assessment Techniques in Concrete 1283.5.1 Chloride Ingress and the Corrosion Threshold 1283.5.2 Carbonation of Concrete and Corrosion 1293.5.3 Conventional Reinforced Concrete 1303.6 Steel Bridges 1333.7 Cable and Suspension Bridges 1333.8 Corrosion of Underground Pipelines 1353.8.1 Types of Corrosion of Underground Pipelines 1363.8.2 Replacement/Rehabilitation 1403.8.3 Pipeline Integrity Management Programs 1413.8.4 In-line Inspections 1413.8.5 Aging Coating 1413.8.6 Stress Corrosion Cracking 1413.8.7 Corrosion-Related Failures 1423.9 Waterways and Ports 1433.9.1 Areas of Major Corrosion Impact 1433.9.2 Fresh Water 1443.10 Hazardous Materials Storage 1453.10.1 Aboveground Storage Tanks 1453.10.2 Underground Fuel Storage Tanks 1483.11 Corrosion Problems in Airports 1483.12 Railroads 1493.13 Gas Distribution 1503.13.1 Pipe Failures 1513.14 Drinking Water and Sewer Systems 1523.14.1 External Corrosion in Water Systems 1533.15 Electrical Utilities 1543.15.1 Fossil Fuel Steam Supply Systems 1543.15.2 Hydraulic Plants 1563.15.3 Areas of Major Corrosion Impact on Electric Utility Systems 1573.16 Telecommunications 1573.16.1 Shelters 1583.17 Motor Vehicles 1603.17.1 Corrosion Causes 1603.18 Ships 1613.19 Aircraft 1623.19.1 Corrosion Modes 1623.20 Railroad Cars 1643.21 Hazardous Materials Transport 1673.22 Oil and Gas Exploration and Production 1703.23 Corrosion in the Mining Industry 1723.23.1 Wire Rope 1733.24 Petroleum Refining 1743.24.1 Areas of Major Corrosion Impact 1753.24.2 Water-Related Corrosion 1753.24.3 Processing-Related Corrosion 1753.24.4 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion 1753.24.5 Corrosion-Related Failure in Refineries 1763.25 Chemical Petrochemical and Pharmaceutical Industries 1773.26 Pulp and Paper Industry 1793.27 Agricultural Production 1813.28 The Food Processing Sector 1823.29 Electronics 1833.30 Corrosion Problems in Home Appliances 1863.30.1 High-Efficiency Furnaces 1873.30.2 Air Conditioners 1873.31 Corrosion Problems in the US Dept. of Defense 1883.31.1 Weapon Systems 1883.31.2 Army 1893.31.3 Vehicles 1893.31.4 Case Study of HMMWV 1903.31.5 Helicopters 1923.31.6 Air Force 1933.31.7 KC-135 Stratotanker 1933.31.8 Navy 1953.31.9 Submarines 1963.31.10 Aircraft 1973.32 Nuclear Waste Storage 1973.32.1 Transition from Interim Storage to Permanent Storage 1983.32.2 Cask Design for Permanent Storage 1993.32.3 Effect of Location on Corrosion of Nuclear Storage Containers 199References 2004 Corrosion Control and Prevention 2054.1 Introduction 2054.2 Protective Coatings 2054.2.1 Organic Coatings 2064.2.2 Metallic Coatings 2124.3 Metals and Alloys 2144.4 Corrosion Inhibitors 2164.4.1 Petroleum Production Transportation and Refining 2174.4.2 Pulp and Paper 2184.4.3 Iron and Steel 2184.4.4 Additives 2184.4.5 Deicers 2194.5 Engineering Composites and Plastics 2194.5.1 Composites 2194.5.2 Polyethylene 2204.5.3 Fluoropolymers 2214.6 Cathodic and Anodic Protection 2214.7 Services 2224.8 Research and Development 2234.9 Corrosion Control of Bridges 2234.9.1 Reinforced Concrete Bridges 2234.9.2 Steel Bridges 2374.10 Mitigating Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Underwater Tunnels (36) 2444.11 Corrosion of Underground Gas and Liquid Transmission Pipelines 2444.11.1 Stray Current Corrosion 2454.11.2 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) 2454.11.3 Mitigation of External Corrosion 2474.11.4 Operations and Maintenance 2484.11.5 Cost of Operation and Maintenance (Corrosion Control) 2504.11.6 Aging Coating 2514.11.7 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 2514.12 Gas Distribution 2544.12.1 Pipe Failures 2554.12.2 Plastic Pipe 2554.13 Waterways and Ports 2554.14 Hazardous Materials Storage 2574.14.1 Nuclear Waste Storage 2574.15 Corrosion Control of Storage Tanks 2604.15.1 Aboveground Storage Tanks–Internal Coatings 2604.15.2 Aboveground Storage Tanks–External Coatings 2624.15.3 Aboveground Storage Tanks–Cathodic Protection 2624.15.4 Underground Storage Tanks–Corrosion Control 2624.15.5 Underground Storage Tanks–Cathodic Protection 2634.15.6 Polymer Tanks 2634.16 Airports 2634.17 Railroads 2644.17.1 Corrosion of Railroad Cars 2644.18 Drinking Water and Sewer Systems 2654.18.1 Corrosion Control in the Water Supply 2654.18.2 Corrosion Control in Water Treatment Facilities 2654.18.3 Corrosion Inhibitors pH Control and Alkalinity Adjusters 2664.18.4 Corrosion Control in Water Storage Systems 2684.18.5 Corrosion Control in Water Transmission Systems 2694.18.6 Corrosion Control in Water Distribution Systems 2714.18.7 Corrosion Control in Sewage Water Systems 2734.18.8 Optimized Management by Combining Corrosion Control Methods 2734.19 Electric Utilities 2754.20 Telecommunications 2754.21 Motor Vehicles 2774.22 Ships 2814.22.1 Design 2814.23 Corrosion Control in Aircraft 2864.23.1 Material Selection 2874.23.2 Coating Selection 2874.23.3 Drainage 2874.23.4 Sealants 2884.24 Hazardous Materials Transport (HAZMAT) 2884.25 Oil and Gas Exploration and Production 2894.26 Corrosion and its Prevention in the Mining Industry 2924.27 Petroleum Refining 2934.28 Corrosion Control in the Chemical Petrochemical and Pharmaceutical Industries 2954.28.1 Corrosion-Resistant Alloys 2964.28.2 Piping Design Factors 2974.28.3 Construction Stage Checks 2984.28.4 Remedial Action and Diagnostic Analysis 3004.29 Pulp and Paper Industrial Sector 3004.29.1 Equipment Design 3004.29.2 Process Design and Corrosion Inhibitors 3014.29.3 Weight Loss Coupons 3014.29.4 Inspection and Preventive Maintenance 3014.30 Agricultural Production 3024.30.1 Keeping Equipment Clean/Dry 3024.30.2 Material Selection 3024.30.3 External Coatings/Paint 3034.30.4 Internal Linings 3034.30.5 Cathodic Protection 3034.31 Food Processing 3034.32 Corrosion Forms in the Electronics Industry 3044.32.1 Cathodic Corrosion 3044.32.2 Pore-Creep in Electrical Contacts and Metallic Joints 3054.32.3 Fretting Corrosion of Separate Connectors with Tin Finishes 3054.32.4 Galvanic Corrosion 3054.32.5 Micropitting on Aluminum 3054.32.6 Corrosion of Aluminum in Chlorinated Media 3064.32.7 Solder Corrosion 3064.32.8 Corrosion of Magnetic and Magneto-Optic Devices 3064.33 Home Appliances 3064.33.1 Corrosion Control by Sacrificial Anodes 3064.33.2 Corrosion Control by Corrosion-Resistant Materials 3074.33.3 Corrosion Control by Coatings and Paint 3084.34 Defense 3084.34.1 Army 3084.34.2 Navy 3114.34.3 Air Force 3114.35 Preventive Strategies 312References 3135 Consequences of Corrosion 3175.1 Introduction 3175.2 Corrosion Studies 3175.2.1 The Battelle-NBS Study 3175.3 Corrosion Damage Defects and Failures 3255.3.1 Point Defects 3265.3.2 Line Defects 3275.3.3 Planar and Surface Defects 3275.3.4 Bulk Defects 3275.3.5 Fault 3275.3.6 Connector Corrosion 3275.3.7 Failure 3285.4 Age-Reliability Characteristics 3895.5 Historical Implications of Corrosion 3905.6 Social Implications of Corrosion 3925.7 The Nuclear Industry 3925.8 Fossil Fuel Energy Systems 3935.9 The Aerospace Industry 3935.10 The Electrical and Electronics Industry 3935.11 The Marine and Offshore Industry 3945.12 The Automobile Industry 3955.13 Bridges 3955.14 Biomedical Engineering 3975.15 The Defense Industry 3975.16 Corrosion and Environmental Implications 397References 398Index 403