Taphonomy of Human Remains

Eline M. J. Schotsmans is a post-doctoral researcher in forensic archaeology and taphonomy at the Laboratory of Anthropology of Past and Present Populations (PACEA) at the University of Bordeaux, France, and an honorary fellow at the University of Bradford, UK. She has worked on various forensic cases and conducts research in taphonomy that lies at the interface between archaeo-anthropology and forensic sciences.Nicholas Márquez-Grant is a Lecturer in Forensic Anthropology and Course Director MSc in Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology at Cranfield University, UK. He is also a Research Associate at the University of Oxford. He has analysed human remains from a number of countries and chronological periods and currently undertakes forensic casework in the UK.Shari Forbes is a Professor and ARC Future Fellow in the Centre for Forensic Science at the University of Technology Sydney. She is also the Director of the Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research (AFTER), the first facility in Australia that allows scientists to study the decomposition of human cadavers. She is regularly consulted on forensic casework and assists police to search for and locate human remains using police dogs and geophysical equipment.

• List of Contributors xixNotes on Contributors xxviiForeword xxixAcknowledgements xxxiIntroduction 1Eline M.J. Schotsmans, Nicholas Márquez-Grant and Shari L. ForbesI.1 Efremov: from Taphonomy to Science Fiction 1I.2 The Meaning of Taphonomy 2I.3 The Rationale Behind this Volume 3I.4 Challenges in Forensic Taphonomy 4I.5 Organisation of the Volume 6Part I General Post-Mortem Processes: Degradation of Soft Tissue, Bone and Associated Materials 91 Gross Post-Mortem Changes in the Human Body 11Stuart J. Hamilton and Michael A. Green1.1 Introduction 111.2 The Immediate Post-Mortem Period 111.3 Subsequent Weeks 161.4 Other Post-Mortem Modifications 161.5 Skeletonisation 221.6 Conclusion and Future Research 222 Microscopic Post-Mortem Changes: the Chemistry of Decomposition 26Shari L. Forbes, Katelynn A. Perrault and Jenna L. Comstock2.1 Introduction 262.2 Autolysis 272.3 Putrefaction 272.4 Factors Affecting Autolysis and Putrefaction 312.5 Impact of the Decomposition Process on the Surrounding Environment 322.6 Conclusion 353 Profiling Volatile Organic Compounds of Decomposition 39Pierre-Hugues Stefanuto, Elien Rosier, Jan Tytgat, Jean-François Focant and Eva Cuypers3.1 Introduction 393.2 Matrices and Sampling Methods 403.3 Results and Discussion 463.4 Conclusion and Future Research 494 Blood Degradation and Bloodstain Age Estimation 53Gerda J. Edelman and Maurice C.G. Aalders4.1 Introduction: Forensic relevance of bloodstains 534.2 Blood Degradation 544.3 Mechanical and Morphological Changes 554.4 Optical Methods 554.5 Practical Implementation 594.6 Crime Scene Challenges of Bloodstain Age Estimation 604.7 Conclusion 625 DNA Degradation: Current Knowledge and Progress in DNA Analysis 65Claudio Ottoni, Bram Bekaert and Ronny Decorte5.1 Introduction 655.2 Mechanisms of DNA Degradation 655.3 Preservation of DNA: Recommendations Concerning Sampling and Storage 685.4 Methodologies to Analyse Degraded DNA 705.5 Future Prospects 745.6 Conclusion 756 Taphonomic Alterations to Hair and Nail 81Andrew S. Wilson6.1 Introduction 816.2 Structure of Hair and Nail 826.3 Changes to Hair and Nail 836.4 Processing and Storage of Hair 876.5 Conclusion 877 Taphonomy of Teeth 92Christopher W. Schmidt, Robin Quataert, Fatma Zalzala and Ruggero D'Anastasio7.1 Introduction 927.2 Mechanical Damage: Forensic Case Study 937.3 Effects of Thermal Damage 947.4 Thermal Damage: Archaeological Case Study 957.5 Caveats 977.6 Conclusion 988 The Taphonomy of Natural Mummies 101Dario Piombino-Mascali, Heather Gill-Frerking and Ronald G. Beckett8.1 Introduction 1018.2 Post-Mortem Decay 1028.3 Natural or Spontaneous Mummification 1028.4 Soft Tissue Changes 1038.5 Environment, Culture or Both? 1048.6 Dry Environments 1048.7 Bog Environments 1098.8 Cold Environments 1108.9 Anaerobic Environments 1128.10 Differential Decomposition 1138.11 Post-Depositional Factors and Taphonomic Impact 1148.12 Conclusion 1169 Degradation of Clothing in Depositional Environments 120Barbara H. Stuart and Maiken Ueland9.1 Introduction 1209.2 The Structures and Properties of Clothing Materials 1209.3 Decomposition Mechanisms of Clothing Materials in Depositional Environments 1249.4 The Influence of Clothing on the Decomposition Processes 1279.5 Forensic and Archaeological Studies of Clothing Degradation 1289.6 Protocols for Forensic and Archaeological Clothing Collection and Analysis 1309.7 Conclusion and Future Research 13110 Post-Mortem Interval Estimation: an Overview of Techniques 134Tal Simmons10.1 Introduction 13410.2 Why Estimating the PMI is Important 13410.3 Scientific Method versus Anecdote in PMI Estimation 13510.4 Methods for Estimating PMI 13710.5 Case Example 13910.6 Conclusion and Future Research 140Part II The Depositional Environment 14311 Relationships between Human Remains, Graves and the Depositional Environment 145Emily N. Junkins and David O. Carter11.1 Introduction 14511.2 The Taphonomy of Buried Human Remains 14511.3 Factors that Influence Decomposition: Environmental and Intrinsic Variables 14611.4 Decomposition Processes: Autolysis, Putrefaction and Decay 14911.5 The Forensic Application of Taphonomy 15011.6 Conclusion 15112 Bacterial Symbionts and Taphonomic Agents of Humans 155Franklin E. Damann12.1 Introduction 15512.2 Bacterial Growth and Metabolism 15612.3 Limiting Factors of Bacterial Growth and Function 15612.4 Bacteria as Symbiotic Organisms 15812.5 Bacteria as Taphonomic Agents 15912.6 Putrefaction 15912.7 Microbiology in Forensic Medicine 16112.8 Conclusion 16313 Forensic Entomology and Funerary Archaeoentomology 167Stefano Vanin and Jean-Bernard Huchet13.1 Introduction 16713.2 Insects: Useful Information for Forensic Scientists and Archaeologists 16813.3 Forensic Entomology and the Application of Insect Knowledge in Forensic Contexts 17513.4 Insects Recovered from Graves or Associated with Human Remains in Archaeological Contexts 17613.5 Body Alteration at the Crime Scene as a Result of Insect Activity 17913.6 Bone Modifications due to Insect Activity 18113.7 Conclusion 18114 Forensic Botany and Stomach Contents Analysis: Established Practice and Innovation 187Jennifer Miller14.1 Introduction 18714.2 Forensic Applications of Botany 18714.3 Conclusion 19715 The Effects of Weathering on Bone Preservation 201Soren Blau15.1 Introduction 20115.2 A Brief History of Weathering Studies 20115.3 Variables that Influence Weathering 20215.4 The Value of Bone Weathering Analyses in Forensic Investigations 20415.5 Conclusion 20816 The Effects of Terrestrial Mammalian Scavenging and Avian Scavenging on the Body 212Alexandria Young16.1 Introduction 21216.2 Terrestrial Mammalian Scavengers 21316.3 Avian Scavengers 22516.4 Applications to Crime Scene Investigation 22616.5 Conclusion and Future Research 22717 Decomposition in Aquatic Environments 235Barbara H. Stuart and Maiken Ueland17.1 Introduction 23517.2 Decomposition Processes in Aquatic Environments 23617.3 Post-Mortem Submersion Interval 23917.4 Factors Influencing Aquatic Decomposition Processes 24017.5 Case Reports and Studies 24417.6 Recovery Protocols 24617.7 Conclusion and Future Research 24718 Post-Mortem Differential Preservation and its Utility in Interpreting Forensic and Archaeological Mass Burials 251Caroline Barker, Esma Alicehajic and Javier Naranjo Santana18.1 Introduction 25118.2 Assessment of Taphonomic Change in Forensic and Archaeological Contexts 25118.3 The Study of Taphonomy in Forensic and Archaeological Contexts 25318.4 Taphonomic Assessment in Mass Burial Deposits 25618.5 Taphonomic Processes and Differential Preservation in Mass Burials: Current Research and Application 25818.6 Case Study 1: Differential Preservation of Human Remains and Artefacts in Archaeological Mass Graves of the Same PMI and its Utility to Establish Differences in Burial Environments over Time 26218.7 Case Study 2: Differential Preservation of Human Remains in Forensic Mass Graves and its Use as an Evidentiary Tool 26418.8 Conclusion and Future Research 26619 Reconstructing the Original Arrangement, Organisation and Architecture of Burials in Archaeology 277Dominique Castex and Frédérique Blaizot19.1 Introduction 27719.2 The Reconstruction of Perishable Funerary Architecture and its Arrangement 27819.3 Analysis of Several Individuals in the Same Pit 28419.4 Conclusion 294Part III Anti-, Peri- and Post-Mortem Modifications to the Body 29720 Forensic Toxicology of Decomposed Human Remains 299Richard Lloyd and Julie Evans20.1 Introduction 29920.2 Toxicological Matrices 30120.3 Case Study 30720.4 Conclusion and Future Research 31121 Thermal Alteration to the Body 318Tim J.U. Thompson, David Gonçalves, Kirsty Squires and Priscilla Ulguim21.1 Introduction 31821.2 Soft Tissue Changes 31821.3 Hard Tissue Changes 31921.4 Conclusion and Future Research 32822 Concealing the Crime: the Effects of Chemicals on Human Tissues 335Eline M. J. Schotsmans and Wim Van de Voorde22.1 Introduction 33522.2 Corrosive Substances: Definitions and History 33622.3 The Effect of Corrosive Substances on Human Tissues: Case Examples 33722.4 Research on Corrosive Agents and Decomposition 34122.5 Case Study: The Pandy Case 34322.6 Conclusion 34723 Distinguishing between Peri- and Post-Mortem Trauma on Bone 352Cristina Cattaneo and Annalisa Cappella23.1 Introduction 35223.2 Peri- and Post-Mortem Trauma 35223.3 Alternative Solutions for Distinguishing Between Peri- and Post-Mortem Trauma on Bone 36223.4 Conclusion 36524 Collection Care and Management of Human Remains 369Rebecca C. Redfern and Jelena J. Bekvalac24.1 Introduction 36924.2 Collection Origin and Deposition 36924.3 Collection Management 37124.4 Conclusion 378Part IV Case Studies 38525 The Use of Volatile Fatty Acid Biomarkers to Estimate the Post-Mortem Interval 387Arpad A. Vass25.1 Introduction 38725.2 Methods and Collection 38725.3 Conclusion 39326 A Taphonomic Study Based on Observations of 196 Exhumations and 23 Clandestine Burials 394Roosje de Leeuwe and W.J. Mike Groen26.1 Introduction 39426.2 Background on the Exhumations Carried out by the NFI 39426.3 Variables 39526.4 Cemetery versus Clandestine Burials 40026.5 Conclusion 40127 Case Studies on Taphonomic Variation between Cemetery Burials 402Karl Harrison and Emily Cline27.1 Introduction 40227.2 Burial Taphonomy: Examples of Cemetery Burials 40227.3 Conclusion 40728 Forensic Entomology Case Studies from Mexico 410Leonardo R. Flores Pérez, Humberto Molina Chávez, Manuel Nava Hernández and Fray M. Pérez Villegas28.1 Introduction 41028.2 Case Study from Mexico City 41028.3 Case Studies from Hidalgo State 41428.4 Conclusion 41729 Recovery of Skeletonised Human Remains and Textile Degradation: a Case Study 420Rob C. Janaway and Nicholas Márquez-Grant29.1 Introduction 42029.2 Outdoor Recovery of Skeletonised Human Remains 42029.3 Case Study 42229.4 Conclusion 42630 Saponified Brains of the Spanish Civil War 429Fernando Serrulla, Francisco Etxeberría, Lourdes Herrasti, José Luis Cascallana and Julio Del Olmo30.1 Introduction: the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) 42930.2 Two Mass Graves 42930.3 Methods and Materials 43130.4 Results: Taphonomic Factors and Brain Analysis 43130.5 Discussion and Conclusion 43431 Analysis and Interpretation of Burned Human Remains from a Homicide 438Anne Coulombeix and Yves Schuliar31.1 Introduction 43831.2 Background to the Case 43831.3 Physical Evidence Recovered at the Crime Scene 43931.4 Additional Experiments 44031.5 Discussion 44231.6 Conclusion 44332 A Soldier’s Story: Forensic Anthropology and Blast Injury 445Marie Christine Dussault, Martin Brown and Richard Osgood32.1 Introduction 44532.2 Background and Case History 44532.3 Condition of the Remains and Inventory 44632.4 Analysis Results 44832.5 Discussion 44932.6 Conclusion 45133 Decomposition in an Unusual Environment: Body Sealed in Concrete 452Maria Cristina de Mendonça33.1 Introduction 45233.2 Case Report 45233.3 Discussion and Conclusion 45334 A Case Study from Los Angeles: Baby in Concrete 454Chelsea Parham and Elissa Fleak34.1 Introduction 45434.2 Background to the Case 45434.3 External Examination 45534.4 Internal Examination 45734.5 Discussion 45834.6 Conclusion 459Part V Past, Present and Future Considerations 46135 History and Development of the First Anthropology Research Facility, Knoxville, Tennessee 463Giovanna M. Vidoli, Dawnie W. Steadman, Joanne B. Devlin and Lee Meadows Jantz35.1 Introduction 46335.2 History of the ARF 46335.3 Daily Operations of the FAC 46535.4 Research at the ARF 46835.5 Training Opportunities at the ARF 47035.6 Conclusion 47136 Crime Scene Investigation, Archaeology and Taphonomy: Reconstructing Activities at Crime Scenes 476W.J. Mike Groen and Charles E.H. Berger36.1 Introduction 47636.2 CSI Fundamentals 47836.3 The Archaeological Paradigm 48036.4 Assessing Archaeological Assemblages and Site Formation Processes 48336.5 The CSI Practice, an Archaeological and Criminalistic Perspective 48436.6 Conclusion 490Acknowledgements 491References 491Index 495