Research in Psychology

Methods and Design

Häftad, Engelska, 2024

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Beskrivning

An approachable, coherent, and important text, Research in Psychology: Methods and Design, 8th Edition continues to provide its readers with a clear, concise look at psychological science, experimental methods, and correlational research in this newly updated version. Rounded out with helpful learning aids, step-by-step instructions, and detailed examples of real research studies makes the material easy to read and student-friendly.

Produktinformation

Utgivningsdatum:2024-09-19
Mått:203 x 249 x 31 mm
Vikt:771 g
Format:Häftad
Språk:Engelska
Antal sidor:480
Upplaga:8
Förlag:John Wiley & Sons Inc
ISBN:9781119330448

Utforska kategorier

Psykologisk metod inom Psykologi och pedagogik

Innehållsförteckning

Summary of Research Examples xvPreface xvii1 Scientific Thinking in Psychology 1Why Take This Course? 2Ways of Knowing 5Authority 5Use of Reason 5Empiricism 6The Ways of Knowing and Science 8Science as a Way of Knowing 9Science Assumes Determinism 9Science Makes Systematic Observations 10Science Produces Public Knowledge 10Box 1.1: ORIGINS—A Taste of Introspection 11Science Produces Data‐Based Conclusions 12Science Produces Tentative Conclusions 13Science Asks Answerable Questions 14Science Develops Theories That Can Be Falsified 14Psychological Science and Pseudoscience 15Recognizing Pseudoscience 16Associates with True Science 17Box 1.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Falsifying Phrenology 18Relies on Anecdotal Evidence 19Sidesteps the Falsification Requirement 20Reduce Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts 21The Goals of Research in Psychology 21Describe 21Predict 22Explain 22Apply 22A Passion for Research in Psychology 23Eleanor Gibson (1910–2002) 24B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) 252 Ethics in Psychological Research 30Box 2.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—Infants at Risk 31Developing a Code of Ethics for Psychological Science 32Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans 35Weighing Benefits and Costs: The Role of the IRB 35Informed Consent and Deception in Research 38Box 2.2: ETHICS—Historical Problems with Informed Consent 39Informed Consent and Special Populations 41Use of Deception 42Treating Participants Well 43Research Ethics and the Internet 46Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals 47Animal Rights 48Box 2.3: ORIGINS—Antivivisection and the APA 48Using Animals in Psychological Research 50The APA Code for Animal Research 52Justifying the Study 52Caring for the Animals 52Using Animals for Educational Purposes 53Scientific Fraud 53Data Falsification 543 Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology 60Varieties of Psychological Research 61The Goals: Basic versus Applied Research 61The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research 63Research Example 1—Combining Laboratory and Field Studies 64The Data: Quantitative versus Qualitative Research 66Asking Empirical Questions 67Operational Definitions 67Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity 69Box 3.1: ORIGINS—Serendipity and Edge Detectors 70Developing Research from Theory 70The Nature of Theory 71The Relationship between Theory and Research 72Attributes of Good Theories 74Falsification 74Box 3.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Falsification and Der Kluge Hans 75Parsimony 77Common Misunderstandings about Theory 78Developing Research from Other Research 78Research Teams and the “What’s Next?” Question 79Research Example 2 – “What’s Next?” 80Replication 82Box 3.3: ETHICS—Questionable Research Practices and Replication Remedies 83Creative Thinking in Science 84Reviewing the Literature 86Computerized Database Searches 86Search Tips 87Search Results 884 Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing 93Who to Measure—Sampling Procedures 94Probability Sampling 94Random Sampling 94Stratified Sampling 95Cluster Sampling 95Nonprobability Sampling 96What to Measure—Varieties of Behavior 96Developing Measures from Constructs 97Research Example 3—Testing Constructs Using Habituation 98Research Example 4—Testing Constructs Using Reaction Time 99Box 4.1: ORIGINS—Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation 100Evaluating Measures 101Reliability 101Validity 103Research Example 5—Construct Validity 104Reliability and Validity 105Scales of Measurement 105Nominal Scales 106Ordinal Scales 107Interval Scales 108Box 4.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Measuring Somatotypes on an Interval Scale: Hoping for 4-4-4 108Ratio Scales 109Statistical Analysis 110Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 111Descriptive Statistics 111Box 4.3: ETHICS—Statistics that Mislead 116Inferential Statistics 117Null Hypothesis Significance Testing 118Type I and Type II Errors 120Interpreting Failures to Reject H 0 121Beyond Null Hypothesis Significance Testing 122Effect Size 123Confidence Intervals 124Power 1255 Introduction to Experimental Research 129Essential Features of Experimental Research 130Box 5.1: ORIGINS—John Stuart Mill and the Rules of Inductive Logic 131Establishing Independent Variables 132Varieties of Manipulated Independent Variables 132Control Groups 133Research Example 6—Experimental and Control Groups 133Controlling Extraneous Variables 134Measuring Dependent Variables 136Subject Variables 137Research Example 7—Using Subject Variables 138Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables 140Box 5.2: CLASSIC STUDIES—Bobo Dolls and Aggression 141The Validity of Experimental Research 143Statistical Conclusion Validity 143Construct Validity 144External Validity 144Other Populations 144Box 5.3: ETHICS—Recruiting Participants: Everyone’s in the Pool 145Other Environments 147Other Times 148A Note of Caution about External Validity 148Internal Validity 148Threats to Internal Validity 149Studies Extending Over Time 149History and Maturation 150Regression to the Mean 151Testing and Instrumentation 152Participant Problems 152Subject Selection Effects 152Attrition 153A Final Note on Internal Validity, Confounding, and External Validity 1546 Methodological Control in Experimental Research 159Between‐Subjects Designs 160Creating Equivalent Groups 161Random Assignment 161Matching 163Within‐Subjects Designs 167Controlling Order Effects 169Testing Once per Condition 170Complete Counterbalancing 170Partial Counterbalancing 170Testing More than Once per Condition 171Reverse Counterbalancing 172Block Randomization 172Research Example 8—Counterbalancing with Block Randomization 173Methodological Control in Developmental Research 174Box 6.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—The Record for Repeated Measures 176Controlling for the Effects of Bias 177Experimenter Bias 177Controlling for Experimenter Bias 178Research Example 9—Using a Double Blind Procedure 179Participant Bias 180Box 6.2: ORIGINS—Productivity at Western Electric 181Research Example 10—Demand Characteristics 182Controlling for Participant Bias 183Box 6.3: ETHICS—Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too 1857 Experimental Design I: Single‐Factor Designs 189Single Factor—Two Levels 190Between‐Subjects, Single‐Factor Designs 191Research Example 11—Two-Level Independent Groups Design 192Research Example 12— Two-Level Matched Groups Design 193Research Example 13— Two-Level Ex Post Facto Design 194Within‐Subjects, Single‐Factor Designs 194Box 7.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—Psychology’s Most Widely Replicated Finding? 195Research Example 14—Two-Level Repeated Measures Design 196Single Factor—More Than Two Levels 198Between‐Subjects, Multilevel Designs 199Research Example 15—Multilevel Independent Groups Design 199Within‐Subjects, Multilevel Designs 201Research Example 16—Multilevel Repeated Measures Design 201Analyzing Data from Single‐Factor Designs 202Presenting the Data 202Types of Graphs 203Box 7.2: ORIGINS—The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve 204Analyzing the Data 206Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs 206Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs 207Special‐Purpose Control Group Designs 209Placebo Control Group Designs 209Wait List Control Group Designs 210Box 7.3: ETHICS—Who’s in the Control Group? 210Research Example 17—Using Both Placebo and Wait List Control Groups 212Yoked Control Group Designs 213Research Example 18—A Yoked Control Group 2138 Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs 219Essentials of Factorial Designs 220Identifying Factorial Designs 220Outcomes—Main Effects and Interactions 221Main Effects 221Research Example 19—Main Effects 223Interactions 225Research Example 20—An Interaction with No Main Effects 226Interactions Sometimes Trump Main Effects 228Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions 229Creating Graphs for the Results of Factorial Designs 232Box 8.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—To Sleep, Perchance to Recall 235Varieties of Factorial Designs 237Mixed Factorial Designs 238Research Example 21—A Mixed Factorial with Counterbalancing 239Research Example 22—A Mixed Factorial without Counterbalancing 240Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P × E Designs 241Research Example 23—A Factorial Design with a P × E Interaction 244Research Example 24—A Mixed P × E Factorial with Two Main Effects 245Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs 246Box 8.2: ETHICS—On Being a Competent and Ethical Researcher 248Analyzing Data from Factorial Designs 249Box 8.3: ORIGINS—Factorials Down on the Farm 2509 Non‐Experimental Design I: Survey Methods 255Survey Research 256Box 9.1: ORIGINS—Creating the “Questionary” 256Sampling Issues in Survey Research 257Surveys versus Psychological Assessment 259Creating an Effective Survey 259Types of Survey Questions or Statements 259Assessing Memory and Knowledge 262Adding Demographic Information 262A Key Problem: Survey Wording 263Collecting Survey Data 266In-Person Interviews 266Mailed Written Surveys 267Phone Surveys 268Online Surveys 268Ethical Considerations 269Box 9.2: ETHICS—Using and Abusing Surveys 269Research Example 25—A Survey of College Students’ Study Strategies 270Analyzing Data from Non‐Experimental Methods 272Correlation: Describing Relationships 272Scatterplots 273Correlation Coefficients 275Coefficient of Determination 276Be Aware of Outliers 277Regression: Making Predictions 277Research Example 26 – Regression and Multiple Regression 280Interpreting Correlational Results 282Directionality 282Research Example 27—Correlations and Directionality 283Third Variables 284Combining Non‐Experimental and Experimental Methods 286Research Example 28—Combining Methods 28610 Non‐Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods 291Observational Research 292Varieties of Observational Research 292Naturalistic Observation 293Participant Observation 294Box 10.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—When Prophecy Fails 294Challenges Facing Observational Methods 295Absence of Control 295Observer Bias 296Participant Reactivity 297Ethics 298Box 10.2: ETHICS—A Matter of Privacy 298Research Example 29—A Naturalistic Observation 299Research Example 30—A Covert Participant Observation 301Analyzing Qualitative Data from Non‐Experimental Designs 302Archival Research 303Archival Data 304Research Example 31—A Non-Experimental Design Using Archival Data 305Analyzing Archival Data 307Meta‐Analysis—A Special Case of Archival Research 308Research Example 32—Meta-analysis and Psychology’s First Registered Replication Report (RRR) 30911 Quasi‐Experimental Designs and Applied Research 313Beyond the Laboratory 314Research Example 33—Applied Research 315Applied Psychology in Historical Context 316Box 11.1: CLASSIC STUDIES—The Hollingworth’s, Applied Psychology, and Coca-Cola 318Design Problems in Applied Research 319Quasi‐Experimental Designs 320Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 320Outcomes 321Regression to the Mean and Matching 322Research Example 34—A Nonequivalent Control Group Design 325Research Example 35—A Nonequivalent Control Group Design Without Pretests 327Interrupted Time Series Designs 327Outcomes 328Research Example 36—An Interrupted Time Series Design 329Variations on the Basic Time Series Design 330Program Evaluation 332Box 11.2: ORIGINS—Reforms as Experiments 332Planning for Programs—Needs Analysis 333Research Example 37—Assessing Need in Program Evaluation 334Monitoring Programs—Formative Evaluation 335Evaluating Outcomes—Summative Evaluation 336Weighing Costs—Cost‐Effectiveness Analysis 337A Note on Qualitative Data Analysis 338Box 11.3: ETHICS—Evaluation Research and Ethics 33812 Small N Designs 343Research in Psychology Began with Small N 344Box 12.1: ORIGINS—Cats in Puzzle Boxes 346Reasons for Small N Designs 347Occasional Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries of Grouped Data 347Practical and Philosophical Problems with Large N Designs 349The Experimental Analysis of Behavior 350Applied Behavior Analysis 353Box 12.2: ETHICS—Controlling Human Behavior 353Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis 355Elements of Single‐Subject Designs 355Withdrawal Designs 356Research Example 38—An A–B–A–B Design 357Multiple Baseline Designs 357Research Example 39—A Multiple Baseline Design 360Changing Criterion Designs 360Research Example 40—A Changing Criterion Design 361Alternating Treatments Designs 363Research Example 41—An Alternating Treatments Design 363Evaluating Single‐Subject Designs 365Case Study Designs 367Research Example 42—A Case Study 368Box 12.3: CLASSIC STUDIES—The Mind of a Mnemonist 370Evaluating Case Studies 371Epilogue: What I Learned in My Research Methods Course 376Appendix A Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology 379Research Reports and APA-Style 379General Guidelines 380Writing Style 380Using Numbers 380Reducing Bias in Language 382Avoiding Plagiarism 383Main Sections of the Research Report 384Presentations and Posters 395Tips for Presenting a Paper 395Tips for Presenting a Poster 395Appendix B Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Applications Exercises 399Chapter 1. Scientific Thinking in Psychology 399Chapter 2. Ethics in Psychological Research 400Chapter 3. Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology 400Chapter 4. Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing 401Chapter 5. Introduction to Experimental Research 402Chapter 6. Methodological Control in Experimental Research 403Chapter 7. Experimental Design I: Single‐Factor Designs 405Chapter 8. Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs 408Chapter 9. Non‐Experimental Design I: Survey Methods 410Chapter 10. Non‐Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods 411Chapter 11. Quasi‐Experimental Designs and Applied Research 411Chapter 12. Small N Designs 413Appendix A. Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology 414Glossary 416References 430Index 451