Textile Finishing

Kashmiri Lal Mittal was employed by the IBM Corporation from 1972 through 1993 Currently, he is teaching and consulting worldwide in the broad areas of adhesion as well as surface cleaning. He has received numerous awards and honors including the title of doctor honoris causa from Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland. He is the editor of more than 130 books dealing with adhesion measurement, adhesion of polymeric coatings, polymer surfaces, adhesive joints, adhesion promoters, thin films, polyimides, surface modification surface cleaning, and surfactants. Dr. Mittal is also the Founding Editor of the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives.Thomas Bahners studied physics at the universities of Münster and RWTH Aachen from 1974 to 1981. He has been a research scientist at the Deutsches Textil-orschungszentrum Nord-West (DTNW), Krefeld from November 1982. In 1987 he obtained his PhD in physical chemistry at the University of Duisburg where he is now the Head of Department of Physical Technologies whose research focuses on soft matter material science, polymer physics, and surface design by means of physical technologies. He has supervised about 50 research projects funded by companies or national/European research programs, and published about 200 journal articles and book chapters.

• Preface xvPart 1 Recent Developments and Current Challenges in Textile Finishing1 Recent Concepts of Antimicrobial Textile Finishes 3Barbara Simončič and Brigita Tomšič1.1 Introduction 31.2 Antimicrobial Agents 51.2.1 Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activity 61.2.2 Structures of Antimicrobial Agents 71.2.2.1 Leaching Antimicrobial Agents 71.2.2.2 Bound Antimicrobial Agents 171.3 Low Adhesion Agents 211.4 Dual-Action Antimicrobial Agents 241.5 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Activity of Functionalized Textiles 291.5.1 Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antibacterial Activity 311.5.2 Standardized Methods for the Determination of Antifungal Activity 351.6 Health and Environmental Issues 391.6.1 Health and Environmental Impacts of Antimicrobial Compounds 411.7 Future Trends 461.8 Summary 46Acknowledgement 48References 482 Flame Retardant Textile Finishes 69A Richard Horrocks2.1 Introduction 702.2 Current Commercial, Durable Flame Retardants: Advantages and Disadvantages 712.3 Current Challenges 782.3.1 Minimisation of Effluents 782.3.2 Replacing Formaldehyde Chemistry, Particularly with Respect to Cotton and Blended Fabrics 822.3.2.1 Oligomeric Phosphate-Phosphonate 832.3.2.2 Multifunctional Carboxylic Acids 832.3.2.3 Alkyl Phosphoramidate Adduct 862.3.2.4 Phosphonyl Cyanurates 872.3.2.5 Cellulose-Phosphoramidate Ester Interchange 882.3.2.6 Cellulose-Chloro Triazinyl Derivative Condensation 892.3.2.7 Phosphorus Acid Derivatives of Cellulose 902.3.2.8 Phosphorus-Nitrogen-Silicon Developments 912.3.2.9 Polymer Networks 922.3.2.10 Other Finishing Treatments 932.3.3 Replacing Bromine, Notably in Coating and Back-Coating Formulations 942.3.3.1 Reducing the BrFR Concentrations 952.3.3.2 Possible Bromine-Chlorine and Phosphorus-Bromine Synergies 962.3.3.3 Effectiveness of Phosphorus 972.3.3.4 The Sensitisation of Decomposition or Flame Retarding Efficiency of Phosphorus-Based Systems 992.3.3.5 The Introduction of a Volatile and Possible Vapour-Phase Active, Phosphorus-Based Flame Retardant Component 992.4 Novel Surface Chemistries 1012.4.1 Sol-Gel Surface Treatments 1032.4.2 Layer-by-Layer Treatments 1072.4.3 Polymer Coating and UV and Plasma Grafting Treatments 1112.4.3.1 Plasma Treatments 1122.4.3.2 UV and Other Grafting Treatments 1162.5 Summary 117References 117Bibliography 1273 Striving for Self-Cleaning Textiles – Critical Thoughts on Current Literature 129Thomas Bahners and Kash Mittal3.1 Introduction 1303.2 Fundamental Principles 1333.2.1 Self-Cleaning – The Super-Hydrophobic Approach 1333.2.2 Self-Cleaning – The Super-Hydrophilic Approach 1363.2.3 Expected Merits of the Concepts 1383.3 Attempts to Attain Super-Hydrophobic Behavior 1403.3.1 Minimized Surface Free Energy 1403.3.1.1 Novel Chemical Finishes of Non-Polar Character 1413.3.1.2 Deposition of Non-Polar Thin Layers by Plasma and Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) 1423.3.1.3 Deposition of Non-Polar Thin Layers by Photo-Chemical Surface Modification 1453.3.2 Enhancing Liquid Repellence by Adding Surface Roughness 1473.3.2.1 Application of Micro- and Nano-Rough (Hybrid) Coatings 1473.3.2.2 Incorporation of Micro- and Nanoparticles 1493.3.2.3 Laser-Based Surface Roughening 1513.4 Attempts to Attain Super-Hydrophilic Properties 1533.4.1 Use of Photo-Catalytic TiO2 1533.4.2 Making Use of Micro-Roughness According to the Wenzel Model 1553.5 Relevance for Dirt Take-Up, Cleanability, and Self-Cleaning 1563.6 Summary 160References 1624 Metallization of Polymers and Textiles 171Piotr Rytlewski, Krzysztof Moraczewski and Bartłomiej Jagodziński4.1 Introduction 1714.2 Main Methods of Metallization 1734.2.1 Methods Based on Physical Vapor Deposition 1734.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition Methods 1784.3 Electroless Metallization 1844.4 Summary 198References 1995 Wettability Characterization in Textiles – Use and Abuse of Measuring Procedures 207Thomas Bahners, Helga Thomas and Jochen S. Gutmann5.1 Introduction 2085.2 Peculiarities of Textile Substrates 2095.3 Wettability Measurements on Fabrics 2135.3.1 Contact Angle Measurements 2135.3.2 Drop Penetration Tests 2175.3.3 Soaking or Rising Height Test 2225.3.4 The Wilhelmy Method 2245.4 Contact Angle Measurements on Fibers 2265.4.1 Adapting the Wilhelmy Plate Method to Single Fibers 2265.4.2 The Washburn Approach – Wilhelmy Wicking Method 2265.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 228Acknowledgements 231References 231Part 2 Surface Modification Techniques for Textiles6 Surface Functionalization of Synthetic Textiles by Atmospheric Pressure Plasma 237Keiko Gotoh6.1 Introduction 2376.2 Processing Parameters of Atmospheric Pressure Plasma (APP) Jet 2396.3 Change in Single Fiber Wettability Due to APP Jet Treatment 2416.4 Hydrophobic Recovery after APP Jet Treatment 2446.5 Chemical and Topographical Changes on Fiber Surface Due to APP Jet Treatment 2456.6 Fabric Damage Due to APP Jet Treatment 2476.7 Improvement of Textile Serviceability Properties by APP Jet Treatment 2506.7.1 Water Wicking Property 2506.7.2 Detergency 2516.7.3 Dyeability 2526.8 Summary and Prospects 254Acknowledgements 254References 2557 UV-Based Photo-Chemical Surface Modification of Textile Fabrics 261Thomas Bahners and Jochen S. Gutmann7.1 Introduction 2617.2 Fundamentals of the Process 2637.2.1 Photo-Addition, Irradiation in Air 2637.2.2 Layer Formation by Homo-Polymerization and Graft-co-Polymerization 2657.2.3 Experimental Concept 2687.3 Fiber Properties Defined by the Surface Chemistry of Deposited Layers 2697.3.1 Wetting and Adhesion 2697.3.2 Wetting and Protein Adhesion – Antifouling Surfaces 2717.3.3 Highly Liquid Repellent Technical Textiles 2767.3.4 Patterned Wettablitity 2807.4 Fiber Modification by Bulk Properties of Deposited Layers 2817.4.1 Mechanical and Thermal Stability 2827.4.2 Barrier Function 2847.4.3 Charge Storage 2857.4.4 Permanent Flame Retardant Finish 2877.5 Summary and Outlook 289References 291Part 3 Innovative Functionalities of Textiles8 Glimpses into Tunable Wettability of Textiles 299Pelagia Glampedaki8.1 Introduction 3008.2 Paths to Tunable Wettability 3028.2.1 Fibre and Textile Surface Functionalisation 3058.2.2 Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogel Functionalising Systems 3068.2.3 Modes of Functionalisation and Additional Parameters to be Considered 3088.3 Practical Aspects and Applications 3148.4 Prospects 3168.5 Summary 318References 3189 3D Textile Structures for Harvesting Water from Fog: Overview and Perspectives 325Jamal Sarsour, Thomas Stegmaier and Goetz Gresser9.1 Introduction 3269.2 Biological Models 3279.2.1 Namib Desert Grass 3279.2.2 Black Beetle in the Namib Desert 3289.2.3 Epiphytic bromeliads 3289.2.4 Pinus canariensis 3309.3 Textile Development and Engineering 3319.3.1 Fog Harvesting Efficiency in the Laboratory 3339.3.2 Model of Drop Formation on the Yarn System of 3D Textiles 3249.3.3 Scale Up to an Industrial Process 3269.4 Technical Realization 3409.5 Summary and Prospects 342References 34210 Textile-Fixed Catalysts and their Use in Heterogeneous Catalysis 345Klaus Opwis, Katharina Kiehl, Thomas Straube, Thomas Mayer-Gall and Jochen S. Gutmann10.1 Introduction 34610.2 Immobilization of Catalysts on Textile Carrier Materials 34810.2.1 Inorganic Catalysts 34810.2.2 Organo-Metallic Catalysts 35010.2.3 Enzymes 35210.2.4 Organic Catalysts 35510.3 Summary and Outlook 357Acknowledgements 358References 35911 Medical Textiles as Substrates for Tissue Engineering 363Sahar Salehi, Mahshid Kharaziha, Nafiseh Masoumi, Afsoon Fallahi, and Ali Tamayol11.1 Introduction 36411.1.1 Concept of TE 36411.1.2 Background of Medical Textiles in TE 36511.2 Fiber Formation Approaches 36811.2.1 Wet Spinning 36811.2.2 Melt Spinning 36911.2.3 Microfluidic Spinning 36911.2.4 Self-Assembly 37111.3 Fiber-Based Architectures for the TE Scaffold 37111.3.1 Woven Fabrics 37111.3.2 Knitted Fabrics 37311.3.3 Braided Fabrics 37511.3.4 Non-Woven Fabrics 37511.3.5 Bioprinting 37711.4 Applications of Medical Textiles in TE 38011.4.1 Musculoskeletal Tissues 38011.4.2 Muscular Tissues 38711.4.3 Ocular Tissues 39111.4.4 Nerve Tissue 39411.4.5 Skin 39711.5 Summary and Prospects 399Note 400References 400Part 4 Fiber-Reinforced Composites12 Thermoset Resin Based Fiber Reinforced Biocomposites 425D. Kalita and A. N. Netravali12.1 Introduction 42612.1.1 Reinforcements and Fillers 42712.1.2 Resins 42912.1.3 Composites 43012.1.4 Nanocomposites 43012.1.5 Interfaces 43112.1.6 Petroleum Based and Biobased Resins and Fibers 43212.2 Characteristics of Biocomposites 43312.3 Composite Classification 43412.3.1 Hybrid Composites 43412.3.2 ‘Greener’ Composites 43512.3.3 ‘Green’ Composites 43512.4 Natural Fiber Processing 43612.4.1 Fiber Extraction 43712.4.2 Fiber Treatments 43712.4.3 Fiber Forms (Nonwoven, Woven, Knitted) 43812.5 Polymeric Resins 43912.5.1 Green Resins 44012.5.2 Thermoset Green Resins 44112.5.2.1 Protein Based Resins 44112.5.2.2 Starch Based Resins 44412.5.2.3 Fats/Lipids/Oils Based Resins 44712.6 Biobased Thermoset Composites 44812.6.1 Plant Based Cellulose Fiber Biocomposites 44912.6.2 Starch Based Biocomposites 45012.6.3 Protein Based Biocomposites 45212.6.4 Chitosan Based Biocomposites 45312.6.5 Lipid Based Biocomposites 45312.7 Bionanocomposites 45612.7.1 Starch Based Nanocomposites 45712.7.2 Cellulose Based Nanocomposites 45812.7.3 Protein Based Nanocomposites 46012.7.4 Chitosan Based Nanocomposites 46212.8 Applications and Advantages of Biocomposites 46312.9 Opportunity and Challenges 46612.10 Summary 468References 46913 Characterisation of Fibre/Matrix Adhesion in Biobased Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites 485J. Müssig and N. Graupner13.1 Introduction 48513.1.1 Terms and Definitions 48713.1.1.1 Fibre 48713.1.1.2 Fibre Bundle 48713.1.1.3 Equivalent Diameter 48813.1.1.4 Critical Length 48813.1.1.5 Aspect Ratio and Critical Aspect Ratio 48913.1.1.6 Single Element versus Collective 48913.1.1.7 Collective Test to Measure Pull-Out 49013.1.1.8 Interface and Interphase 49013.1.1.9 Adhesion and Adherence 49213.1.1.10 Practical & Theoretical Fibre/Matrix Adhesion 49213.1.2 Terminology and Properties of Fibres and Matrices 49213.1.2.1 Polymer Matrices 49213.1.2.2 Natural Fibres 49613.1.2.3 Regenerated Cellulose Fibres 49713.2 Methods 50313.2.1 Overview 50313.2.2 Single Fibre/Single Fibre Bundle Tests 50413.2.2.1 Pull-Out and Microbond Tests 50413.2.2.2 Fragmentation Test 52913.2.3 Composite Tests 53413.2.3.1 Double-Notched Tensile Test 53413.2.3.2 Iosipescu Shear Test 53613.2.3.3 90° (Off-Axis) Tensile Test and 90° (Off-Axis) Bending Test 53713.2.3.4 Short Beam Shear Test 53813.3 Comparison of Data 53913.4 Summary 543Acknowledgements 545References 545Index 557