John Morreall is Emeritus Professor at the College of William & Mary. A Professor of Religious Studies and Philosophy for four decades, Morreall has taught dozens of courses in world religions, theories of religion, philosophy of religion, and ethics. As the preeminent expert in the philosophy of humor, he specializes in the value of humor in both religion and life generally. He has given more than 600 lectures and seminars for academic, medical, and professional groups in North America, Europe, Africa, Japan, and China. Tamara Sonn is Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Professor Emerita in the History of Islam at the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. Author of numerous books on Islamic history, she has lectured in Canada, Britain, South Africa, Turkey, Pakistan, and across the United States. She was Senior Editor of the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Associate Editor of The Islamic World Past and Present, and founding Editor-in-Chief of the journal Religion Compass.

• List of Figures and Maps xAcknowledgments xiiiCredits xivAbout the Companion Website xviPart I Introducing Religious Studies 11 Introduction: Religious Studies: Overview and Terminology 2Religious Studies: Prepare to Be Surprised 3Overview of Religion 12Identity 13The Importance of Order 16Order Out of Chaos 16Order and Predictability: Eschatology and Divination 17Social Order 20Ethics/Morality and Law 20Authority and Power 22Explaining Evil, Suffering, and Death 24Theodicy 24Explaining Death 27Ghosts 28Resurrection 29Souls 30Reincarnation 31Ritual and Prayer 32Conclusion 33Discussion Questions 34References 34Further Reading 342 Theory and Method in Religious Studies 36Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Studies 37The Relationship Between Philosophy and Theology 38Two Kinds of Christian Theology 39Scriptural (Biblical) Studies and the Impact of the Printing Press 41Baruch Spinoza (d. 1677): The Beginnings of Source Criticism 41William Robertson Smith (d. 1894): Historical Criticism 43The Rise of Modernity and Its Impact on the Study of Religion 44Philosophy and the Study of Religion 45Karl Marx (d. 1883) 46Edmund Husserl (d. 1938) 48Rudolf Otto (d. 1937) 49Mircea Eliade (d. 1986) 50Oriental Studies and Religion 51Max Müller (d. 1900) 51Anthropology and Religion 53Edward Burnett Tylor (d. 1917) 53James Frazer (d. 1941) 56Clifford Geertz (d. 2006) 59Mary Douglas (d. 2007) 61Psychology of Religion 63William James (d. 1910) 63Sigmund Freud (d. 1939) 65Carl Gustav Jung (d. 1961) 67Sociology of Religion 68Emile Durkheim (d. 1917) 68Max Weber (d. 1920) 69Peter L. Berger (d. 2017) 71Robert N. Bellah (d. 2013) 72Conclusion 73Discussion Questions 74References 74Further Reading 75Part II Survey of Global Religious Traditions 77Introduction to Part II 77References 80Further Reading 803 Prehistoric Religiosity? 82Animism and Anthropomorphism 84Death Rituals 88Fertility Goddesses 88Hunting Rituals 89Shamans 89Ancient Traditions, Oral Traditions, and Religion 90The Neolithic Revolution and the Rise of Historic Religions 92Conclusion 95Discussion Questions 96References 96Further Reading 964 The Prophetic Traditions: Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and Baha’i 98Introduction 99Zoroastrianism 100History and Teachings 100Zoroastrian Rituals 102Judaism 104The Torah, the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament 104History and Teachings 111The First Five Centuries 111The Middle Ages (500–1500 CE) 113The Modern Period (1750 to the Present) 116The Development of Reform Judaism 116Conservative Judaism 121Reconstructionist Judaism 122Rituals 122Judaism Today 124Christianity 125History and Teachings 125Origins 125The Development of Christian Doctrine 128The Institutionalization and Politicization of Christianity 131Eastern and Western Christians 133Eastern Christianity 133Western Christianity 135The Protestant Reformation 137Christian Rituals 139Christianity Today 139Islam 141History and Teachings 141Core Teachings 141Early History: The Life of Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs 147The Dynastic Caliphates 150The Modern Period: Reform and Recovery 153Islamic Rituals 154Major Divisions Today 156Baha’i 156History and Teachings 156Baha’i Rituals 159Discussion Questions 160References 161Further Reading 1615 The Dharmic Traditions of India: Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Sikh 162Hindus 164History and Teachings 164Indus Valley Civilization (3000–1500 BCE) 165The Aryans and the Vedas (1500–600 BCE) 165The Mystical Worldview of the Upanishads 167Classical Hinduism (3rd century BCE–7th century CE) 170The Ramayana 170The Mahabharata 170The Puranas 174The Laws of Manu 175Hinduism Today 177Rituals 177Jains 181Origins and Early History 182Core Teachings and Practice 182Jain Scripture 184Historical Development 185Jainism Today 186Buddhists 188History and Teachings 189Understanding the Four Noble Truths 191The Ethics of “Awakening” 193The Core of All Buddhist Traditions 193The Development of the Three Main Traditions 195Theravada (Hinayana) 195Mahayana 196Vajrayana 198Buddhism Today 199Rituals 200Sikhs 201Origins and Core Teachings 201Scriptures 202Historical Development 202Rituals and Celebrations 206Sikhs Today 207Conclusion 207Discussion Questions 208References 208Further Reading 2086 The Three Teachings and Traditions of China: Confucian, Daoist, Buddhist, and Folk 210Historical Development 213Confucius (551–479 BCE) 214Daoism 217Buddhism in China 220Tiantai (Tendai) Buddhism 222Pure Land Buddhism 222Huayan (Kegon) Buddhism 223Chan (Zen) Buddhism 223Chinese Folk Traditions 226Rituals in Chinese Traditions 227Weddings 228Funerals 229Chinese Traditions Today 230Discussion Questions 233References 233Further Reading 2347 Ancient Indigenous Traditions Today 236Shinto 238History and Teachings 238Rituals 241The Seneca Longhouse Religion 242History and Teachings 242Rituals 246African Traditional Religion in Diaspora 249Haitian Vodou 249Santeria 251Tengrism 254History of Central Asian Tengrism 255Beliefs and Practices of Tengrism 258Contemporary Central Asian Tengrism 260Yanomami Traditions 261Historical Background 261Yanomami Worldview 263Discussion Questions 265References 265Further Reading 2668 New Religious Movements 268Wicca 270History and Teachings 270Rituals 272Scientology 276History and Teachings 276Practices 279Is Scientology a Religion? 281Discussion Questions 281References 282Further Reading 282Part III Religion in The Public Sphere 283Introduction to Part III 283References 2879 Religion and Bioethics 288Euthanasia 289Christianity 290Judaism 293Islam 294Hinduism 295Buddhism 296Abortion 296Clarifying Terminology 296Judaism 297Christianity 298Islam 299In Vitro Fertilization, Embryonic Stem-cell Research and Therapy 300Christianity 301Judaism 303Islam 303Discussion Questions 303References 304Further Reading 30510 Scripture, History, and Science 306Oral Style in Scripture 308Scriptural Literalism in Christian Fundamentalism 309The Roman Catholic Church and the Galileo Affair 312Scriptural Literalism and Ethics 314Religious Approaches to Environmental Stewardship 315Discussion Questions 318References 318Further Reading 31811 Religion, Identity, and Politics 320Notes on Terminology 322Religious Nationalism in the United States 325The Development of Religious Nationalism in the United States 326US Religious Nationalism Today 328The Dangers of Religious Nationalism 332Religious Nationalism Around the World 333Brazil 334Europe 336India 338Israel 339China 341Myanmar 342Final Observations 344Discussion Questions 345References 345Further Reading 347Glossary 349Index 357

John Morreall is Emeritus Professor at the College of William & Mary. A Professor of Religious Studies and Philosophy for four decades, Morreall has taught dozens of courses in world religions, theories of religion, philosophy of religion, and ethics. As the preeminent expert in the philosophy of humor, he specializes in the value of humor in both religion and life generally. He has given more than 600 lectures and seminars for academic, medical, and professional groups in North America, Europe, Africa, Japan, and China. Tamara Sonn is Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Professor Emerita in the History of Islam at the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. Author of numerous books on Islamic history, she has lectured in Canada, Britain, South Africa, Turkey, Pakistan, and across the United States. She was Senior Editor of the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Associate Editor of The Islamic World Past and Present, and founding Editor-in-Chief of the journal Religion Compass.

• List of Figures and Maps xAcknowledgments xiiiCredits xivAbout the Companion Website xviPart I Introducing Religious Studies 11 Introduction: Religious Studies: Overview and Terminology 2Religious Studies: Prepare to Be Surprised 3Overview of Religion 12Identity 13The Importance of Order 16Order Out of Chaos 16Order and Predictability: Eschatology and Divination 17Social Order 20Ethics/Morality and Law 20Authority and Power 22Explaining Evil, Suffering, and Death 24Theodicy 24Explaining Death 27Ghosts 28Resurrection 29Souls 30Reincarnation 31Ritual and Prayer 32Conclusion 33Discussion Questions 34References 34Further Reading 342 Theory and Method in Religious Studies 36Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Studies 37The Relationship Between Philosophy and Theology 38Two Kinds of Christian Theology 39Scriptural (Biblical) Studies and the Impact of the Printing Press 41Baruch Spinoza (d. 1677): The Beginnings of Source Criticism 41William Robertson Smith (d. 1894): Historical Criticism 43The Rise of Modernity and Its Impact on the Study of Religion 44Philosophy and the Study of Religion 45Karl Marx (d. 1883) 46Edmund Husserl (d. 1938) 48Rudolf Otto (d. 1937) 49Mircea Eliade (d. 1986) 50Oriental Studies and Religion 51Max Müller (d. 1900) 51Anthropology and Religion 53Edward Burnett Tylor (d. 1917) 53James Frazer (d. 1941) 56Clifford Geertz (d. 2006) 59Mary Douglas (d. 2007) 61Psychology of Religion 63William James (d. 1910) 63Sigmund Freud (d. 1939) 65Carl Gustav Jung (d. 1961) 67Sociology of Religion 68Emile Durkheim (d. 1917) 68Max Weber (d. 1920) 69Peter L. Berger (d. 2017) 71Robert N. Bellah (d. 2013) 72Conclusion 73Discussion Questions 74References 74Further Reading 75Part II Survey of Global Religious Traditions 77Introduction to Part II 77References 80Further Reading 803 Prehistoric Religiosity? 82Animism and Anthropomorphism 84Death Rituals 88Fertility Goddesses 88Hunting Rituals 89Shamans 89Ancient Traditions, Oral Traditions, and Religion 90The Neolithic Revolution and the Rise of Historic Religions 92Conclusion 95Discussion Questions 96References 96Further Reading 964 The Prophetic Traditions: Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and Baha’i 98Introduction 99Zoroastrianism 100History and Teachings 100Zoroastrian Rituals 102Judaism 104The Torah, the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament 104History and Teachings 111The First Five Centuries 111The Middle Ages (500–1500 CE) 113The Modern Period (1750 to the Present) 116The Development of Reform Judaism 116Conservative Judaism 121Reconstructionist Judaism 122Rituals 122Judaism Today 124Christianity 125History and Teachings 125Origins 125The Development of Christian Doctrine 128The Institutionalization and Politicization of Christianity 131Eastern and Western Christians 133Eastern Christianity 133Western Christianity 135The Protestant Reformation 137Christian Rituals 139Christianity Today 139Islam 141History and Teachings 141Core Teachings 141Early History: The Life of Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs 147The Dynastic Caliphates 150The Modern Period: Reform and Recovery 153Islamic Rituals 154Major Divisions Today 156Baha’i 156History and Teachings 156Baha’i Rituals 159Discussion Questions 160References 161Further Reading 1615 The Dharmic Traditions of India: Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Sikh 162Hindus 164History and Teachings 164Indus Valley Civilization (3000–1500 BCE) 165The Aryans and the Vedas (1500–600 BCE) 165The Mystical Worldview of the Upanishads 167Classical Hinduism (3rd century BCE–7th century CE) 170The Ramayana 170The Mahabharata 170The Puranas 174The Laws of Manu 175Hinduism Today 177Rituals 177Jains 181Origins and Early History 182Core Teachings and Practice 182Jain Scripture 184Historical Development 185Jainism Today 186Buddhists 188History and Teachings 189Understanding the Four Noble Truths 191The Ethics of “Awakening” 193The Core of All Buddhist Traditions 193The Development of the Three Main Traditions 195Theravada (Hinayana) 195Mahayana 196Vajrayana 198Buddhism Today 199Rituals 200Sikhs 201Origins and Core Teachings 201Scriptures 202Historical Development 202Rituals and Celebrations 206Sikhs Today 207Conclusion 207Discussion Questions 208References 208Further Reading 2086 The Three Teachings and Traditions of China: Confucian, Daoist, Buddhist, and Folk 210Historical Development 213Confucius (551–479 BCE) 214Daoism 217Buddhism in China 220Tiantai (Tendai) Buddhism 222Pure Land Buddhism 222Huayan (Kegon) Buddhism 223Chan (Zen) Buddhism 223Chinese Folk Traditions 226Rituals in Chinese Traditions 227Weddings 228Funerals 229Chinese Traditions Today 230Discussion Questions 233References 233Further Reading 2347 Ancient Indigenous Traditions Today 236Shinto 238History and Teachings 238Rituals 241The Seneca Longhouse Religion 242History and Teachings 242Rituals 246African Traditional Religion in Diaspora 249Haitian Vodou 249Santeria 251Tengrism 254History of Central Asian Tengrism 255Beliefs and Practices of Tengrism 258Contemporary Central Asian Tengrism 260Yanomami Traditions 261Historical Background 261Yanomami Worldview 263Discussion Questions 265References 265Further Reading 2668 New Religious Movements 268Wicca 270History and Teachings 270Rituals 272Scientology 276History and Teachings 276Practices 279Is Scientology a Religion? 281Discussion Questions 281References 282Further Reading 282Part III Religion in The Public Sphere 283Introduction to Part III 283References 2879 Religion and Bioethics 288Euthanasia 289Christianity 290Judaism 293Islam 294Hinduism 295Buddhism 296Abortion 296Clarifying Terminology 296Judaism 297Christianity 298Islam 299In Vitro Fertilization, Embryonic Stem-cell Research and Therapy 300Christianity 301Judaism 303Islam 303Discussion Questions 303References 304Further Reading 30510 Scripture, History, and Science 306Oral Style in Scripture 308Scriptural Literalism in Christian Fundamentalism 309The Roman Catholic Church and the Galileo Affair 312Scriptural Literalism and Ethics 314Religious Approaches to Environmental Stewardship 315Discussion Questions 318References 318Further Reading 31811 Religion, Identity, and Politics 320Notes on Terminology 322Religious Nationalism in the United States 325The Development of Religious Nationalism in the United States 326US Religious Nationalism Today 328The Dangers of Religious Nationalism 332Religious Nationalism Around the World 333Brazil 334Europe 336India 338Israel 339China 341Myanmar 342Final Observations 344Discussion Questions 345References 345Further Reading 347Glossary 349Index 357

John Morreall is Emeritus Professor at the College of William & Mary. A Professor of Religious Studies and Philosophy for four decades, Morreall has taught dozens of courses in world religions, theories of religion, philosophy of religion, and ethics. As the preeminent expert in the philosophy of humor, he specializes in the value of humor in both religion and life generally. He has given more than 600 lectures and seminars for academic, medical, and professional groups in North America, Europe, Africa, Japan, and China. Tamara Sonn is Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Professor Emerita in the History of Islam at the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. Author of numerous books on Islamic history, she has lectured in Canada, Britain, South Africa, Turkey, Pakistan, and across the United States. She was Senior Editor of the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Associate Editor of The Islamic World Past and Present, and founding Editor-in-Chief of the journal Religion Compass.

• List of Figures and Maps xAcknowledgments xiiiCredits xivAbout the Companion Website xviPart I Introducing Religious Studies 11 Introduction: Religious Studies: Overview and Terminology 2Religious Studies: Prepare to Be Surprised 3Overview of Religion 12Identity 13The Importance of Order 16Order Out of Chaos 16Order and Predictability: Eschatology and Divination 17Social Order 20Ethics/Morality and Law 20Authority and Power 22Explaining Evil, Suffering, and Death 24Theodicy 24Explaining Death 27Ghosts 28Resurrection 29Souls 30Reincarnation 31Ritual and Prayer 32Conclusion 33Discussion Questions 34References 34Further Reading 342 Theory and Method in Religious Studies 36Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Studies 37The Relationship Between Philosophy and Theology 38Two Kinds of Christian Theology 39Scriptural (Biblical) Studies and the Impact of the Printing Press 41Baruch Spinoza (d. 1677): The Beginnings of Source Criticism 41William Robertson Smith (d. 1894): Historical Criticism 43The Rise of Modernity and Its Impact on the Study of Religion 44Philosophy and the Study of Religion 45Karl Marx (d. 1883) 46Edmund Husserl (d. 1938) 48Rudolf Otto (d. 1937) 49Mircea Eliade (d. 1986) 50Oriental Studies and Religion 51Max Müller (d. 1900) 51Anthropology and Religion 53Edward Burnett Tylor (d. 1917) 53James Frazer (d. 1941) 56Clifford Geertz (d. 2006) 59Mary Douglas (d. 2007) 61Psychology of Religion 63William James (d. 1910) 63Sigmund Freud (d. 1939) 65Carl Gustav Jung (d. 1961) 67Sociology of Religion 68Emile Durkheim (d. 1917) 68Max Weber (d. 1920) 69Peter L. Berger (d. 2017) 71Robert N. Bellah (d. 2013) 72Conclusion 73Discussion Questions 74References 74Further Reading 75Part II Survey of Global Religious Traditions 77Introduction to Part II 77References 80Further Reading 803 Prehistoric Religiosity? 82Animism and Anthropomorphism 84Death Rituals 88Fertility Goddesses 88Hunting Rituals 89Shamans 89Ancient Traditions, Oral Traditions, and Religion 90The Neolithic Revolution and the Rise of Historic Religions 92Conclusion 95Discussion Questions 96References 96Further Reading 964 The Prophetic Traditions: Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and Baha’i 98Introduction 99Zoroastrianism 100History and Teachings 100Zoroastrian Rituals 102Judaism 104The Torah, the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament 104History and Teachings 111The First Five Centuries 111The Middle Ages (500–1500 CE) 113The Modern Period (1750 to the Present) 116The Development of Reform Judaism 116Conservative Judaism 121Reconstructionist Judaism 122Rituals 122Judaism Today 124Christianity 125History and Teachings 125Origins 125The Development of Christian Doctrine 128The Institutionalization and Politicization of Christianity 131Eastern and Western Christians 133Eastern Christianity 133Western Christianity 135The Protestant Reformation 137Christian Rituals 139Christianity Today 139Islam 141History and Teachings 141Core Teachings 141Early History: The Life of Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphs 147The Dynastic Caliphates 150The Modern Period: Reform and Recovery 153Islamic Rituals 154Major Divisions Today 156Baha’i 156History and Teachings 156Baha’i Rituals 159Discussion Questions 160References 161Further Reading 1615 The Dharmic Traditions of India: Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Sikh 162Hindus 164History and Teachings 164Indus Valley Civilization (3000–1500 BCE) 165The Aryans and the Vedas (1500–600 BCE) 165The Mystical Worldview of the Upanishads 167Classical Hinduism (3rd century BCE–7th century CE) 170The Ramayana 170The Mahabharata 170The Puranas 174The Laws of Manu 175Hinduism Today 177Rituals 177Jains 181Origins and Early History 182Core Teachings and Practice 182Jain Scripture 184Historical Development 185Jainism Today 186Buddhists 188History and Teachings 189Understanding the Four Noble Truths 191The Ethics of “Awakening” 193The Core of All Buddhist Traditions 193The Development of the Three Main Traditions 195Theravada (Hinayana) 195Mahayana 196Vajrayana 198Buddhism Today 199Rituals 200Sikhs 201Origins and Core Teachings 201Scriptures 202Historical Development 202Rituals and Celebrations 206Sikhs Today 207Conclusion 207Discussion Questions 208References 208Further Reading 2086 The Three Teachings and Traditions of China: Confucian, Daoist, Buddhist, and Folk 210Historical Development 213Confucius (551–479 BCE) 214Daoism 217Buddhism in China 220Tiantai (Tendai) Buddhism 222Pure Land Buddhism 222Huayan (Kegon) Buddhism 223Chan (Zen) Buddhism 223Chinese Folk Traditions 226Rituals in Chinese Traditions 227Weddings 228Funerals 229Chinese Traditions Today 230Discussion Questions 233References 233Further Reading 2347 Ancient Indigenous Traditions Today 236Shinto 238History and Teachings 238Rituals 241The Seneca Longhouse Religion 242History and Teachings 242Rituals 246African Traditional Religion in Diaspora 249Haitian Vodou 249Santeria 251Tengrism 254History of Central Asian Tengrism 255Beliefs and Practices of Tengrism 258Contemporary Central Asian Tengrism 260Yanomami Traditions 261Historical Background 261Yanomami Worldview 263Discussion Questions 265References 265Further Reading 2668 New Religious Movements 268Wicca 270History and Teachings 270Rituals 272Scientology 276History and Teachings 276Practices 279Is Scientology a Religion? 281Discussion Questions 281References 282Further Reading 282Part III Religion in The Public Sphere 283Introduction to Part III 283References 2879 Religion and Bioethics 288Euthanasia 289Christianity 290Judaism 293Islam 294Hinduism 295Buddhism 296Abortion 296Clarifying Terminology 296Judaism 297Christianity 298Islam 299In Vitro Fertilization, Embryonic Stem-cell Research and Therapy 300Christianity 301Judaism 303Islam 303Discussion Questions 303References 304Further Reading 30510 Scripture, History, and Science 306Oral Style in Scripture 308Scriptural Literalism in Christian Fundamentalism 309The Roman Catholic Church and the Galileo Affair 312Scriptural Literalism and Ethics 314Religious Approaches to Environmental Stewardship 315Discussion Questions 318References 318Further Reading 31811 Religion, Identity, and Politics 320Notes on Terminology 322Religious Nationalism in the United States 325The Development of Religious Nationalism in the United States 326US Religious Nationalism Today 328The Dangers of Religious Nationalism 332Religious Nationalism Around the World 333Brazil 334Europe 336India 338Israel 339China 341Myanmar 342Final Observations 344Discussion Questions 345References 345Further Reading 347Glossary 349Index 357