Quantum Biosensing in Medical Diagnostics

J.G. Manjunatha is an Assistant Professor of Chemistry at FMKMC College, a constituent institution of Mangalore University, Madikeri, India. With more than 193 research articles in leading international journals, he has established a global reputation in sensor technologies and materials chemistry. He has edited over 20 books and special issues, serves on multiple editorial boards, and is the Editor-in-Chief of Sensing Technology.

• List of Contributors xvNotes on Contributors xxiPreface xxxi1 Introduction to Quantum Biosensing: A New Frontier in Diagnostics 1Jyotirmayee Sahoo, Muneshwar Harsha Vardhan, Nireekshana Nandigam, and Sonu Gandhi1.1 Introduction 11.2 Foundations of Quantum Mechanics in Biosensing 41.2.1 Basics of Biosensing Technologies 41.2.2 Principles of Quantum Mechanics 61.2.2.1 Quantum Superpositions 61.2.2.2 Entanglement 71.2.2.3 Quantum Tunneling 71.2.3 Technological Components of Quantum Biosensing 71.2.3.1 Quantum Dots 81.2.3.2 Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) Centers in Diamonds 91.2.3.3 Quantum Photonics and Light-Matter Interaction 101.3 Applications of Quantum Biosensing in Diagnostics 101.3.1 Fluorescent Probes in Medical Diagnostics 111.3.2 Applications of Quantum Biosensing in Oncology 111.3.3 Quantum Biosensors for Cardiovascular Disease Detection 131.3.4 Quantum Biosensing in Infectious Disease Diagnostics 131.3.5 Nanoparticles in Quantum Biosensing 151.3.6 Quantum Optical Sensors for Biomedical Applications 151.4 Role of Artificial Intelligence in Quantum Biosensing 181.5 Conclusion 20Acknowledgments 20References 212 Quantum Dots: Fluorescent Probes in Medical Diagnostics 29Balamurugan Arumugam, Po-Ling Chang, Sathish Kumar Ponnaiah, and Sayee Kannan Ramaraj2.1 Introduction 292.2 Properties of Quantum Dots (QDs) 302.2.1 Key Requirements for Applying QDs in Medicine 312.3 Methods of Synthesis of Quantum Dots 332.3.1 Colloidal Chemistry 332.3.2 Organometallic Method 342.3.3 Aqueous Phase Method 342.3.4 Epitaxial Growth 352.3.5 Lithography 352.3.6 Eco-Friendly Synthesis 352.3.7 Electrochemical Methods 362.4 Quantum Dots in Medical Diagnostics 362.4.1 Imaging Applications 372.4.1.1 Real-Time Cellular Imaging and Intracellular Tracking 372.4.1.2 Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) with QDs 372.4.2 Biomarker Detection 382.4.2.1 Cancer Biomarkers and Tumor-Specific Antigen Detection 382.4.2.2 Role in Infectious Disease Diagnostics 392.4.2.3 Use of QDs for Simultaneous Detection of Multiple Analytes 402.4.3 Multiplexed Diagnostic Platforms 412.4.3.1 Use of QDs for Simultaneous Recognition of Various Analytes 412.5 Recent Advancements and Emerging Trends 422.5.1 Development of QD-Based Biosensors 422.5.2 Integration with Other Nanomaterials 432.5.2.1 Graphene and Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) 432.5.2.2 Gold–Graphene Nanocomposites 432.5.2.3 Plasmonic–Quantum Dot Hybrids 432.5.2.4 SERS and Multimodal Platforms 432.5.3 Role of AI and ML in QD-Based Diagnostics 442.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 44References 453 Single-Molecule Detection with Quantum Biosensors 53Jayeeta Chattopadhyay and Tara Sankar Pathak3.1 Introduction 533.2 Fundamental Principles of Quantum Biosensing for Single-Molecule Detection 543.2.1 Quantum Confinement 543.2.2 Quantum Properties for Enhanced Sensing 543.2.2.1 Superposition and Quantum Coherence 543.2.2.2 Entanglement 543.2.2.3 Quantum Noise Reduction 553.2.3 Transduction Mechanisms 553.2.3.1 Optical Transduction 553.2.3.2 Electronic Transduction 553.3 Types of Quantum Biosensors for Single-Molecule Detection 563.3.1 Quantum Dots (QDs)-Based Biosensors 563.3.1.1 Properties and Synthesis Methods 563.3.1.2 Integration into Biosensors 563.3.1.3 Recent Breakthroughs in QD Sensors 563.3.2 Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) Centers in Diamond 573.3.2.1 Properties and Development for Magnetic Quantum Sensing 573.3.2.2 Breakthroughs in Integrating NV Centers into Living Cells 573.3.2.3 New Techniques Using Nanodiamonds in Microdroplets 573.3.3 Superconducting Qubits 583.3.3.1 Principles of Superconducting Qubits 583.3.3.2 Recent Advances in Single-Molecule Sensing with Superconducting Qubits 583.4 Advantages of Quantum Biosensors for Single-Molecule Detection 583.4.1 Unprecedented Sensitivity and Resolution 593.4.1.1 Beyond Classical Limits 593.4.1.2 Digital Readout and Molecular Counting 593.4.1.3 Real-Time and Continuous Monitoring 593.4.2 Noninvasiveness and Biocompatibility 593.4.2.1 Low Light Levels and Minimal Sample Damage 593.4.2.2 Integration into Biological Systems 603.4.3 Ability to Uncover Hidden Molecular Properties 603.4.3.1 Heterogeneity and Stochastic Variability 603.4.3.2 Rare Event Detection 603.5 Applications of Single-Molecule Detection with Quantum Biosensors 603.5.1 Biomedical and Clinical Diagnostics 613.5.1.1 Early Disease Diagnosis and Personalized Medicine 613.5.1.2 Drug Discovery and Neuroscience Research 613.5.1.3 Detection of Pathogens and Biomarkers in Bodily Fluids 613.5.2 Environmental Monitoring and Food Safety 613.5.2.1 Detection of Contaminants 613.5.3 Materials Science and Fundamental Research 623.5.3.1 Characterization of Quantum Materials 623.5.3.2 Probing Molecular Dynamics and Interactions 623.6 Challenges and Limitations 623.6.1 Fabrication and Integration Complexities 633.6.1.1 Material Immobilization and Contamination 633.6.1.2 Miniaturization and Cost 633.6.1.3 Debye Screening Effect in Physiological Solutions 633.6.2 Signal Processing and Data Analysis 633.6.2.1 Low Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Complex Samples 633.6.2.2 Quantum State Reconstruction Challenges 643.6.2.3 Decoherence and Environmental Interference 643.6.3 Toxicity and Biocompatibility (For Certain QDs) 643.7 Conclusion 64References 654 Photonic Quantum Sensors: Light-Based Diagnostic Tools 69Monima Sarma and Tanmay Chatterjee4.1 Introduction 694.2 Various Light-Based Diagnostic Tools and Technologies 704.2.1 Quantum Interferometers 704.2.1.1 HOM Interferometers 704.2.1.2 N00N State Interferometers 744.2.1.3 Franson Interferometers 774.2.2 Squeezed Light Interferometers 834.2.3 Quantum Magnetometers 844.2.4 Quantum-Enabled Imaging Tools and Techniques 854.3 Conclusion 87References 875 Quantum Resonance Imaging: A New Era in Medical Imaging 95Dhivya Antony, Arasan Saroja Anakath, Pandurangan Anandan, and Chinnapiyan Vedhi5.1 Introduction 955.1.1 Background of Quantum Resonance Imaging with Traditional MRI 965.1.2 Technological Review on Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 965.1.3 Relation Between QRI and MRI 985.2 Quantum Resonance Imaging 995.2.1 Discovery of Quantum Resonance Imaging 995.2.2 Development of Quantum Resonance Imaging (QRI) 995.2.3 The Science Behind Quantum Resonance Imaging 1005.3 Advance Technologies in Quantum Resonance Imaging 1015.4 QRI in Medical and Healthcare Applications 1025.4.1 Disease Diagnosis and Early Detection 1025.4.2 Brain and Neurological Imaging 1035.4.3 Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering 1045.4.4 Personalized Medicine 1045.4.5 Cancer Treatment and Monitoring 1055.5 Advantages of QRI 1055.6 Challenges of QRI 1055.7 Future Prospects of QRI 1065.8 Conclusion 106References 1076 Applications of Quantum Biosensing in Oncology 111Hülya Silah and Bengi Uslu6.1 Introduction 1116.2 Quantum Dots and Their Unique Physicochemical Properties 1136.3 Quantum Dots in Oncology: Advanced Applications in Electrochemical Biosensing 1156.4 Conclusion 122References 1237 Quantum Biosensors for Cardiovascular Disease Detection 129Seydanur Yücer, Begüm Sarac, and Fatih Ciftci7.1 Introduction 1297.2 Cardiovascular Diseases: Current Diagnostic Challenges 1307.2.1 Common Types of Cardiovascular Diseases 1307.2.1.1 Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) 1307.2.1.2 High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) 1307.2.1.3 Heart Failure 1307.2.1.4 Arrhythmia (Irregular Heartbeat) 1317.2.1.5 Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD) 1317.2.1.6 Heart Valve Diseases 1317.2.1.7 Aortic Aneurysm 1327.2.2 Traditional Diagnostic Methods and Their Limitations 1327.2.3 Need for More Sensitive and Rapid Detection 1337.3 Quantum Biosensors: Principles and Mechanisms 1347.3.1 Fundamental Quantum Concepts 1347.3.2 Sensing Elements and Working Mechanisms of Quantum Biosensors 1357.3.2.1 Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) Centers in Diamonds 1357.3.2.2 Quantum Dots 1357.3.2.3 Spin and Magnetic Sensing 1367.3.2.4 Optical Detection 1377.3.3 Comparison with Conventional Biosensors 1377.4 Design and Functionality of Quantum Biosensors for Cardiovascular Biomarkers 1397.4.1 Key Cardiovascular Biomarkers for Detection 1397.4.1.1 Troponin (TnC), (TnI), (TnT) 1397.4.1.2 B-type Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) 1397.4.1.3 High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein (hs-CRP) 1397.4.1.4 Myoglobin 1407.4.1.5 Creatine Kinase-MB (CK-MB) 1407.4.2 Quantum Materials and Detection Techniques 1407.4.2.1 Quantum Materials 1407.4.2.2 Detection Techniques 1437.4.3 Wearable and Implantable Quantum Biosensors 1477.5 Recent Advances and Applications 1487.5.1 Breakthrough Studies in Quantum Biosensors for CVD Diagnosis 1487.5.2 Performance Evaluation in CVD Diagnosis 1517.5.3 Real-World Applications and Case Studies 1547.6 Future Perspectives and Challenges 1557.7 Conclusion 156References 1578 Neurodiagnostics: Quantum Approaches to Brain Health 163Brikshadipa Mandal, Subrata Barick, and Sandeep Chandrashekharappa8.1 Introduction 1638.2 Classes of QDs 1648.3 Photophysical Properties of QDs 1658.4 Mechanism of Electroluminescence 1668.5 Synthesis of Quantum Dots 1668.6 Making QDs Biocompatible 1678.7 Detection of QDs (Bioimaging) 1698.8 Conventional Neuroimaging Techniques 1698.8.1 Computed Tomography (CT) 1708.8.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 1708.8.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 1708.8.4 Electroencephalograph (EEG) 1718.8.5 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 1718.8.6 Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopic Imaging (fNIRS) 1718.9 Application of QDs in Brain Health 1728.9.1 Brain Tumors 1728.9.2 Neurodegenerative Disorders (NDs) 1738.9.2.1 Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 1738.9.2.2 Parkinson’s Disease (PD) 1738.10 Conclusion 175References 1759 Quantum Biosensing in Infectious Disease Diagnostics 181Begüm Sarac, Seydanur Yücer, and Fatih Ciftci9.1 Introduction 1819.2 Fundamentals of Quantum Biosensors 1829.2.1 Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) in Pathogen Detection 1829.2.2 Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) Centers in Diamond for Viral RNA Sensing 1839.3 Application of Quantum Biosensors in Infectious Disease Detection 1849.3.1 Viral Infections 1849.3.2 Bacterial Infections 1909.3.3 Parasitic and Fungal Infections 1939.4 Advantages of Quantum Biosensing in Disease Diagnostics 1969.5 Current Research and Practical Implementations 1979.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 1989.7 Conclusion 199References 20010 Quantum Biosensors in Drug Discovery and Development 205Santosh Nandi, Vinayak Adimule, Shankramma S. Nesargi, Savita Hanaji, Rangappa Keri, and Praveen Barmavatu10.1 Introduction 20510.1.1 Fundamentals of Quantum Biosensing 20910.2 Examples of Quantum Biosensors 21010.2.1 Optical Biosensors 21010.2.2 Quantum Plasmonic Biosensors 21210.2.3 Magnetic Biosensors 21310.2.4 Quantum Dot-Based Quantum Biosensors 21510.2.5 Electrochemical and Mechanical Biosensors 21710.3 Transformative Applications of Quantum Biosensors in Drug Development 22010.3.1 Accelerated High-Throughput Screening (HTS) 22010.3.2 Single-Molecule Pharmacokinetic Monitoring 22010.3.3 Target Engagement and Mechanism Studies 22110.3.4 Early Disease Biomarker Detection 22210.4 Integration Issues and Challenges 22410.4.1 Challenges of Scale and Manufacturing 22410.4.2 Interpreting Data with AI and ML Methods 22410.4.3 Regulatory Pathway Considerations 22610.5 Future Outlook and Commercial Potential 22610.5.1 Next-Generation Quantum Biosensor Designs 22710.5.2 Emerging Applications in Personalized Medicine 22710.5.3 Roadmap for Clinical Translation 22810.5.4 Investment and Commercialization Landscape 22810.6 Conclusions 229References 23011 Quantum Biosensing for Environmental Monitoring and Public Health 235Shridevi Salagare, Siddaramanna Ashoka, and Prashanth S. Adarakatti11.1 Introduction 23511.2 Principles of Quantum Biosensing 23611.2.1 Quantum Dots and Their Applications 23611.2.1.1 Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Diamonds 23611.2.1.2 Quantum Coherence and Superposition 23611.2.2 Materials and Technologies 23811.2.2.1 Advanced Materials for Quantum Biosensors 23811.2.2.2 Integration with Nanotechnology 23911.2.2.3 Role of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 23911.2.3 Technological Advances in Quantum Biosensors 24111.2.4 Applications in Environmental Monitoring 24111.2.4.1 Pollutant Identification (Heavy Metals, Pesticides, etc.) 24111.2.4.2 Tracking the Quality of the Air, Water, and Soil 24211.2.4.3 Examples of Cases 24211.2.5 Applications in Public Health 24211.2.5.1 Early Pathogen and Biomarker Identification 24211.2.5.2 Using Quantum Sensors to Diagnose Illnesses 24311.2.5.3 Consequences for International Health Emergencies 24311.3 Challenges and Limitations 24311.3.1 Material and Technological Difficulties 24311.3.2 Both Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability 24311.3.3 Regulatory and Ethical Considerations 24411.3.4 Future Perspectives 24411.4 Conclusions 245Acknowledgments 246References 24612 Nanoparticles in Quantum Biosensing 249Nikiwe Mhlanga12.1 Quantum Mechanics Theory 24912.2 Quantum Biosensing 25012.3 Nanoparticles in Quantum Biosensing 25012.3.1 Miniaturized and Smart Biosensors 25412.4 Nanoparticles-Enabled Bioimaging 25712.5 Outlook of Quantum Nanoparticle-Based Biosensors 260Acknowledgments 261References 26113 Quantum Optical Sensors for Biomedical Applications 267Cigdem Kanbes-Dindar, Nazife Aslan, and Bengi Uslu13.1 Introduction 26713.2 Properties, Synthesis, and Importance of Quantum Nanoparticle 26913.3 Applications of Quantum Optical Sensors for Biomedical Sensing 27113.3.1 Utilizing Raman Spectroscopy for Quantum Optical Sensors for Biomedical Sensing 27113.3.2 Utilizing Fluorescence Spectroscopy for Quantum Optical Sensor Sensing 27413.3.3 Optical Sensor for Biomedical Imaging 27513.4 Challenges of Quantum Optical Sensors for Biomedical Applications 27713.5 Conclusion 278References 27914 Quantum Sensing in Metabolomics 285Gnanesh Rao, Priya Tiwari, Raghu Ningegowda, Belakatte P. Nandeshwarappa, and Sandeep Chandrashekharappa14.1 Introduction 28514.2 Current Challenges in Metabolomics 28614.2.1 Complexity of Biological Samples 28614.2.2 Sensitivity and Selectivity of Detection Methods 28714.3 Quantum Sensing 28714.3.1 How Quantum Sensing Enhances Metabolomics 28714.3.2 Types of Quantum Sensing Relevant to Metabolomics 28814.3.3 Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) Centers in Diamond 28914.3.4 Quantum Interferometric Biosensors 29014.3.5 Quantum Dots-Based Sensors 29114.3.6 Optically Pumped Atomic Magnetometers 29214.4 Applications 29214.4.1 NV-Center-Based NMR in Metabolite Detection and Structure Determination 29214.4.2 Quantum Sensing in Metabolite Detection 29314.4.3 Computational Quantum Chemistry in Metabolite Identification 29414.4.4 Aptamer-Functionalized Platforms 29514.5 Challenges and Considerations 29714.5.1 Integration with Existing Analytical Workflows 29814.5.2 Interdisciplinary Collaboration 29914.6 Conclusion 299References 30015 Quantum Plasmonic in Biosensing 309Raril Chenthattil, Sree Lekshmi, Aswathy S. Murali, Leona R. Varghese, Anuja Sudarsanan, and Beena Saraswathyamma15.1 Introduction 30915.2 Fundamentals of Quantum Plasmonic 31015.2.1 Surface Plasmon Resonances (SPRs) and Localized Surface Plasmons (LSPs) 31015.2.2 Evaluation of Plasmonic Biosensors 31215.2.3 Mechanism of Plasmonic Biosensors 31215.2.4 Quantum Plasmonic in Biosensing 31215.3 Quantum Plasmonic Sensing and Microsystems 31515.3.1 General Concept of Quantum Plasmonic Sensing 31515.3.2 Light/Matter Coupling for Quantum Plasmonic Biosensing 31515.3.3 Quantum Plasmonic Microsystem Biosensors 31615.3.4 Intensity and Phase-Sensitive Sensing 32015.3.5 Other Plasmonic Sensors 32015.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 321Acknowledgment 322References 322Index 327