PFAS in the Environment

Rao Y. Surampalli is Distinguished Visiting Professor in several universities, and President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES) in Lenexa, USA. Tian C. Zhang is Professor in the department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. Sir Bashir M. Al-Hashimi is ARM Professor and Vice-President for Research and Innovation at King’s College London, UK. Chih-Ming Kao is Distinguished Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at the National Sun Yat-sen University in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Makarand M. Ghangrekar is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India. Puspendu Bhunia is Professor at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India. Sovik Das is Assistant Professor at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India.

• List of Contributors xviiEditor Biographies xxiPreface xxvii1 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Overview 1Divyanshu Sikarwar, Ritu Kshatriya, Neha Sharma, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al- Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and C.M. Kao1.1 Introduction 11.2 Classification of PFAS 21.3 Production and Application of PFAS 31.4 Occurrence, Distribution, and Behavior of the PFAS in the Environment 41.5 Impacts of PFAS on the Environment and Living Beings 61.6 Action to Research, Restrict, and Remediate PFAS 71.6.1 Policies and Regulatory Measures 71.6.2 Substitution Plan 81.6.3 Treatment and Remediation Technologies 91.6.4 Research Limitations of PFAS in the Environment 91.7 Book Structure and Outline of Each Chapter 10References 112 Properties, Uses, Sources, and Environmental Releases of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 17Anil Dhanda, Shraddha Yadav, and M. M. Ghangrekar2.1 Introduction 172.2 Properties of PFAS 182.2.1 Physical Properties 182.2.2 Chemical Properties 192.2.3 Thermal Stability 192.3 Major Characteristics Affecting PFAS Fate and Transport in the Environment 202.4 Impacts of Peculiar Features of PFAS 202.5 History and Use of PFAS 212.5.1 Aerospace Sector 212.5.2 Biotechnology 222.5.3 Construction and Infrastructure 222.5.4 Chemical Processing 222.5.5 Metal Finishing and Treatment 222.5.6 Electronics Industry 222.5.7 Energy Technologies 222.5.8 Food and Beverage Processing 232.5.9 Mining Operations 232.5.10 Oil and Gas Industry 232.5.11 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing 232.5.12 Rubber and Plastics Processing 232.5.13 Semiconductor Manufacturing 232.5.14 Textile and Leather Industries 232.5.15 Medical and Diagnostic Devices 242.5.16 Metals and Ceramics 242.5.17 Musical Instruments 242.5.18 Optical Devices 242.5.19 Packaging and Paper 242.5.20 Cosmetics and Personal Care 242.5.21 Pesticides and Agriculture 242.5.22 Pharmaceutical Ingredients 242.5.23 Environmental Remediation 252.5.24 Sports and Recreation 252.5.25 Cabling and Wiring 252.6 Sources and Environmental Releases of PFAS 252.6.1 Major Sources for Environmental Releases of PFAS 252.6.1.1 Industrial Facilities 252.6.1.2 Consumer and Domestic Products 262.6.1.3 Landfills and Wastewater Treatment Plants 262.6.1.4 Legacy Contamination and Global Usage Patterns 262.6.1.5 Atmospheric Emissions and Long- Range Transport 262.6.2 Ranking Exposure Pathways from Various Sources 272.6.2.1 Drinking Water Contamination (High Risk) 272.6.2.2 Food Chain Contamination (High Risk) 272.6.2.3 Indoor Air and Dust (Moderate- to- High Risk) 272.6.2.4 Occupational Exposure (Moderate Risk) 282.6.2.5 Recreational Water Exposure (Moderate Risk) 282.6.2.6 Soil Ingestion and Contact (Low- to- Moderate Risk) 282.7 Future Perspective 282.8 Conclusion 28References 293 Current and Emerging Detection/Monitoring Techniques for Perand Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Quantification in Environmental Samples 35Jiun- Hau Ou, Hua- Bin Zhong, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi3.1 Introduction 353.2 Sample Extraction Methods 353.3 Conventional Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 373.3.1 Liquid Chromatography 383.3.2 Gas Chromatography 393.3.3 Ion Chromatography 393.4 Emerging Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 403.4.1 Colorimetric 403.4.2 Electrochemical and Sensor Based 413.4.3 Fluorescence- Based 423.5 Indirect Quantification Techniques 433.5.1 Fluoride Ion Generation 433.5.2 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 443.5.3 Total Fluorine Organic Compounds 453.6 Regulatory Determinations of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Comparison of Different Techniques 463.6.1 Regulatory Determinations of PFAS 463.6.2 Techniques for Detecting PFAS in Different Media and Sensitivity Comparison 483.7 Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment 493.7.1 Environmental Occurrence and Global Trends 493.7.2 Matrix- Specific Monitoring Challenges 513.7.3 Integration of Emerging Technologies 533.7.4 Data Gaps and Harmonization Needs 543.7.5 Future Outlook 563.8 Challenges with the Detection and Monitoring of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 563.8.1 Limitations of Detection Technologies 573.8.2 Inconsistent Monitoring Standards 583.8.3 Uncertainty in Environmental Migration and Transformation 603.8.4 Insufficient Databases and Monitoring Networks 613.9 Future Perspective 633.9.1 Are Current Analytical Chemistry Techniques Adequate? 633.9.2 What Improvements Are Needed to Improve Process and Precision 633.9.3 How to Better Characterize the Range of PFAS Potentially in the Environment? 643.10 Conclusion 65References 654 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Different Matrices: Occurrence, Distribution, Fate/Transport, and Behavior 79Hua- Bin Zhong, Jiun- Hau Ou, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi4.1 Introduction 794.2 Fate/Transport and Transformation Processes 804.2.1 Partitioning 804.2.2 Transport 814.2.2.1 Advection/Dispersion/Diffusion 814.2.2.2 Deposition 824.2.2.3 Leaching 834.2.3 Surfactant Properties and Micelle Formation 844.2.4 Transformation of PFAS 854.2.4.1 Abiotic 854.2.4.2 Biotic 864.3 PFAS in Different Matrices of the Natural Environment 874.3.1 Aqueous Matrices 884.3.2 Solid Matrices 894.3.3 Air 894.3.4 Living Beings 904.3.5 Food Matrices 914.3.6 Other Media and Compartments 924.3.7 Complex Transitions of PFAS among Different Media 924.4 PFAS in the Built Environment for Pollution Control 934.4.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants 934.4.2 Combined Stormwater and Sewer Overflows 944.4.3 Sewage Sludge, Biosolids, and Landfill Leachate 954.4.4 Solid Waste Management Systems 964.4.5 Remediation Sites 974.5 Future Perspective 984.6 Conclusion 99References 1005 PFAS in Drinking Water Sources: Global Presence, Impacts, Removal, and Regulation 105Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang5.1 Introduction 1055.2 Presence of PFAS in Drinking Water Sources across the Globe 1065.2.1 Europe 1065.2.2 America 1125.2.3 Asia 1155.2.4 Africa 1185.2.5 Australia 1185.3 Human Exposure to PFAS through Drinking Water and Its Impacts 1185.3.1 Immunotoxicity 1195.3.2 Carcinogenicity 1205.3.3 Endocrine Disruption and Kidney Disorders 1215.3.4 Fetal Growth 1225.3.5 Enhanced Cholesterol Levels 1225.3.6 Hormonal Imbalance 1225.3.7 Sexual Development 1235.3.8 Liver Function Disorder 1235.4 Removal of PFAS from Different Drinking Water Sources 1245.4.1 Adsorption 1245.4.2 Membrane Technology 1265.4.3 Anion Exchange 1275.5 Regulations Imposed by Different Countries for the Ramifications of PFAS 1285.6 Future Perspectives 1305.7 Conclusion 131References 1316 Occurrence, Transformation, and Removal of PFAS in Wastewater Treatment Plants 145Srishti Mishra, Rishabh Raj, Brajesh K. Dubey, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar6.1 Introduction 1456.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices 1466.3 Distribution of PFAS in WWTPs Across the Globe 1496.4 Removal of PFAS via Conventional Methods 1506.5 Removal of PFAS from Biosolids 1526.6 Emerging Techniques for PFAS Removal and Future Perspectives 1536.7 Conclusion 154References 1557 A Cyclic Problem of Disposal of Products and Materials Containing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 161Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang7.1 Introduction 1617.2 Potential Sources Contributing to PFAS in the Environment 1637.3 Life Cycle of PFAS in the Environment 1657.4 Three Major PFAS Disposal Methods: Consequences and Impact 1697.4.1 PFAS in Leachate and Surrounding Areas of Landfill 1697.4.2 PFAS in Effluent and Surrounding Areas of WWTPs 1727.4.3 PFAS after Incineration 1757.5 Risks to the Communities Dwelling Near Landfills and PFAS- Polluted Water Sources 1787.6 Future Perspective 1807.7 Conclusion 180References 1818 Ecological Toxicity of PFAS 187Wei- Ting Chen, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang8.1 Introduction 1878.2 Linking PFAS Substances or Subclasses with PFAS Adverse Effects to Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms 1888.3 Exposure Potential for Different Classes of Organisms 1908.3.1 Aquatic Organisms 1908.3.2 Terrestrial Organisms 1918.3.3 Human Exposure 1928.4 Assessing the Ecological Effects of PFAS: Framework and Approaches 1938.4.1 Traditional Toxicity Tests 1948.4.2 QSAR Modeling Approaches 1948.4.3 Read- across Methods 1958.4.4 Microarray 1958.4.5 Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) 1968.5 Conclusion 196References 1979 Toxicity and Health Risks of PFAS 209Chathura Dhanasinghe, Wei- Zhe Lin, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang9.1 Introduction 2099.2 Classification of PFAS 2119.2.1 Legacy 2129.2.2 Emerging 2139.3 Important Pathways of Environmental Exposures 2139.3.1 The Primary Pathway 2149.3.2 The Use of PFAS- contaminated Consumer Products 2159.3.3 The Use of Pesticides in both Agriculture and Residential Applications 2169.3.4 Other Pathways 2179.4 PFAS Toxicity in Humans 2179.4.1 Exposure Sources and Routes of PFAS in Humans 2189.4.2 Accumulation of PFAS in Humans 2199.4.3 Identification of PFAS in Human 2209.4.4 Health Impacts of PFAS on Living Beings 2229.5 PFAS Toxicity in Experimental Models 2249.5.1 Hepatic and Lipid Metabolic Toxicity 2259.5.2 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity 2269.5.3 Immune Suppression 2279.5.4 Tumor Induction 2289.5.5 Endocrine Disruption 2299.5.6 Neurotoxicity 2319.5.7 Obesity 2329.6 PFAS Toxicokinetics and Dynamic Processes in Humans 2329.6.1 Species and Sex Differences 2329.6.2 Effects of Comorbidity on PFAS Toxicokinetics 2339.6.3 Toxicokinetics and Dynamic Processes in Humans 2349.6.4 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic/Toxicokinetic (PBPK/PBTK) Modeling in Different- Aged Populations 2359.7 PFAS Risk Communication 2369.7.1 Role of Risk Perception 2369.7.2 Risk Communication Planning and Engagement Tools 2379.8 Future Perspective 2399.9 Conclusion 240References 24110 PFAS Associated with Microplastics (MPs): A New Concern of a Forever Alliance 265Almeenu Rasheed, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, and Sovik Das10.1 Introduction 26510.2 Fate of MPs and PFAS in the Aquatic Environment 26610.3 MPs as PFAS Carriers in the Aquatic Environment 26710.4 The Interaction of MPs and PFAS through Different Mechanisms 26810.5 Factors Influencing the Interaction of MPs and PFAS 26910.6 Harmful Impact of Combined Exposure of MPs and PFAS Present in Aquatic Environment and Living Organisms 27010.7 Future Perspective 27110.8 Conclusion 271References 27211 Climate Change Threats Imposed by PFAS 275Chathura Dhanasinghe, Wei- Ting Chen, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang11.1 Introduction 27511.2 Role of PFAS in Disrupting Ocean Carbon Sequestration 27911.3 The Harmful Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on Zooplankton 28311.3.1 Bioaccumulation 28411.3.2 Impact on Growth 28511.3.3 Impact on Reproduction 28511.3.4 ROS Production and Oxidative Stress 28611.3.5 PFAS and Hormonal Disruption 28611.4 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Biological Pump and Microbial Pump 28711.4.1 Marine Biological Pump 28711.4.2 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Biological Pump 28911.4.3 Marine Microbial Carbon Pump 29011.4.4 The Detrimental Effect of Oceanic PFAS Pollution on the Marine Microbial Carbon Pump 29211.5 Strategies of Management and Control 29311.5.1 Policy and Governance Approaches 29411.5.2 Technological and Engineering Solutions 29711.6 Future Perspective 30011.7 Conclusion 301References 30212 Conventional Technologies for Removal of PFAS from Water Matrices 315Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang12.1 Introduction 31512.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices and Potential Impacts on the Environment and Living Beings 31612.2.1 Occurrence of PFAS in Surface Water 31612.2.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Groundwater 31712.2.3 Occurrence of PFAS in Drinking Water 31812.2.4 Effect of PFAS on Living Beings 31912.3 Conventional Treatment Technologies for Removing PFAS from Water Matrices 32012.3.1 Physical Technologies 32012.3.2 Chemical Technologies 32912.3.3 Biological Methods 33412.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno- Economic Analysis of Conventional Technologies for PFAS Removal 33612.4.1 Life Cycle Assessment 33612.4.2 Techno- Economic Analysis 33712.5 Future Perspectives 33812.6 Conclusion 339References 33913 Advanced/Emerging Technologies for Removal of PFAS from Water Matrices 349Koran Barman, Yasser Bashir, Neha Sharma, Nehaun Zargar, Ritu Kshatriya, and Sovik Das13.1 Introduction 34913.2 Emerging/Advanced Technologies for PFAS Removal 35213.2.1 Photolysis or Photocatalytic Oxidation 35213.2.2 Constructed Wetlands 35613.2.3 Electrochemical 35713.2.4 Bioelectrochemical 35913.2.5 Plasma 36013.2.6 Electron Beam 36213.2.7 Sub and Super Water Oxidation 36313.2.8 Sonochemical or Sonolysis 36313.2.9 Foam Fractionation 36413.3 Treatment Train for the Removal of PFAS and their Comparison 36613.4 Life Cycle Assessment and Techno- economic Analysis of Advanced and Emerging Technologies for PFAS Removal 36713.5 Future Perspective 36813.6 Conclusion 368References 36914 Treatment Technologies for Removal of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Soil and Biosolids 377Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang14.1 Introduction 37714.2 Fate of PFAS into Soil and Biosolids and Potential Impacts on the Environment and Living Beings 37814.3 Treatment Technologies for PFAS Removal from Soil and Biosolids 38214.3.1 Adsorption 38714.3.2 Membrane 38714.3.3 Stabilization 38814.3.4 Incineration 38914.3.5 Thermal Hydrolysis 38914.3.6 Chemical Oxidation 39014.3.7 Supercritical Water Oxidation 39114.3.8 Plasma 39214.3.9 Sonochemical 39314.3.10 Ball Milling 39414.3.11 Soil Washing 39414.3.12 Soil Liquefractionation 39514.3.13 Bioremediation and Phytoremediation 39614.4 Future Perspective 39714.5 Conclusion 398References 39815 Status of Regulation on the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Across the Globe 405Manikanta M. Doki, Lakshmi Pathi Thulluru, Akash Tripathi, Shamik Chowdhury, and M. M. Ghangrekar15.1 Introduction 40515.2 PFAS Regulation and Guidelines by Different Countries 40615.2.1 United States Environmental Protection Agency 40615.2.2 European Union Guidelines on PFAS 40715.2.3 United Kingdom Regulations on PFAS 40715.2.4 Canadian PFAS Regulation 40815.2.5 National Environmental Management of PFAS in Australia 40815.2.6 Strategies or Policies for the Regulation of PFAS Usage in India 40915.2.7 PFAS Regulation in Japan 40915.2.8 Regulation in Other Countries 41015.2.8.1 Norway 41015.2.8.2 Middle East 41015.2.8.3 Thailand 41015.2.8.4 Vietnam 41015.3 Global Organizations in PFAS Regulation 41115.3.1 UN Recommendation in the Stockholm Convention 41115.3.2 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 41215.3.3 United Nations Environment Programme 41215.3.4 International Pollutants Elimination Network 41315.4 Differences in Available Regulations, Advisories, and Guidelines 41315.5 Factors Contributing to Different Regulation Limits of PFAS 41315.6 Challenges in the Implementation of PFAS Regulations 41415.7 Future Perspective 41415.8 Conclusion 415References 41516 Replacement of Legacy Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: A Way Forward to Mitigate the Ill Impacts Associated with These Chemicals 421Randeep Singh, Anindita Ganguly, Young- Ho Ahn, and Saikat Sinha Ray16.1 Introduction 42116.2 Phasing Out of Legacy PFAS 42416.3 Physicochemical Properties of Legacy PFAS 42516.4 Impacts of Legacy PFAS on the Environment 42916.5 Substitution of Longer- Chain PFAS with Shorter- and Ultra- Shorter- Chain Pfas 43716.6 Conclusions 440References 44017 Transition Toward the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance-Free Environment: Is it Possible? 447Chinmoy Kanti Deb, Randeep Singh, Young- Ho Ahn, and Saikat Sinha Ray17.1 Introduction 44717.2 Stakeholders and Communities’ Concerns 44917.2.1 Understanding Stakeholder Perspectives and Varying Levels of Awareness and Priorities Regarding PFAS Contamination 44917.2.2 Health and Environmental Impacts of PFAS 45017.2.3 Social and Economic Challenges Associated with PFAS 45117.2.4 Role of Public Awareness and Advocacy 45217.3 Transition to a PFAS Free Economy and the Role of the Universal PFAS Restriction 45217.3.1 The Current Reliance on PFAS in Industries 45217.3.2 Challenges in Replacing PFAS with Essential Applications 45317.3.3 Development of PFAS- free Alternatives 45417.3.4 Global Efforts and Universal Restrictions on PFAS 45417.3.4.1 Universal Restrictions on PFAS by the European Union 45617.3.4.2 North American Regulations 45717.3.4.3 PFAS Regulations in Asia, the Pacific Region, and Other Countries 45717.3.4.4 International Treaties for PFAS Monitoring and Regulation 45717.3.4.5 Progress in Global Efforts and International Treaties for PFAS Regulation 45817.3.5 Policy Roadmap and Implementation Strategies for Enforcing Universal PFAS Restriction 45917.3.5.1 Role of Governments and Global Multinational Organizations 45917.3.5.2 Role of Research and Development Community 45917.3.5.3 Role of Product Manufacturers 45917.3.5.4 Role of Product Consumers 46017.3.6 Economic and Social Implications of Transition from PFAS 46017.3.7 How can Lifestyle Changes Reduce the Dependence on PFAS and its Burdens? 46117.4 Challenges Linked with Transition Toward a PFAS- Free Environment 46117.4.1 Detection and Monitoring 46117.4.2 Cost and Uncertainty of Green Elimination of “Forever Chemicals” 46217.4.3 Awareness, Education, and Community Involvement 46217.5 Future Perspectives 46317.6 Conclusion 464References 46418 Research, Regulation, and Remediation of the Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Case Studies 475Azhan Ahmad and Swatantra P. Singh18.1 Introduction 47518.2 Key Actions by USEPA to Address PFAS 47618.2.1 The PFAS Strategic Roadmap 47618.2.2 Setting Drinking Water Standards 47718.2.3 Requiring Industry Accountability 47818.2.4 Classifying PFAS as Hazardous Substances 47818.2.5 Regulating PFAS Discharges into Waterways 47818.2.6 Expanding Monitoring and Research 47918.2.7 Focusing on Environmental Justice 47918.3 PFAS and Its Hidden Impact on Agriculture 48018.4 PFAS in Drinking Water— Minnesota Case Study 48118.5 Prenatal Exposure to PFAS and Birth Outcomes: A Grave Concern 48318.6 The True Cost of PFAS and Benefits of Acting Now 48318.7 Future Perspective 48518.8 Conclusion 486References 486Index 491