Turbulence takes place in practically all flow situations that occur naturally or in modern technological systems. Therefore, considerable effort is being expended in an attempt to understand this very complex physical phenome non and to develop both empirical and mathematical models for its description. Such numerical and analytical computational schemes would allow the reliable prediction and design of turbulent flow processes to be carried out. The purpose of this book is to bring together, in a usable form, some of the fundamental concepts of turbulence along with turbulence models and experimental techniques. It is hoped that these have "general applicability" in current engineering design. The phrase "general applicabil ity" is highlighted because the theory of turbulence is still so much in a formative stage that completely general analyses are not available now, nor will they be available in the immediate future. The concepts and models described herein represent the state-of-the art methods that are now being used to give answers to turbulent flow problems. As in all turbulent flow analysis, the methods are a blend of analytical and empirical input, and the reader should be cognizant of the simplification and restrictions imposed upon the methods when applyingthem to physical situations different from those for which they have been developed.
