Daniel Moreno Nieto, PhD, is full time lecturer at Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, member of the INNANOMAT Research Group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.Daniel Moreno Sánchez, PhD, is full time lecturer at Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, member of the INNANOMAT Research Group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.Ahmed Arabi Hassen, PhD, is the Group Leader for the Composites Innovation (CI) Group in the Manufacturing Science Division (MSD) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), USA.Eric MacDonald, PhD, is Professor for Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering at the University of Texas at El Paso, USA.Sergio I. Molina, PhD, Full Professor and Group Leader of the INNANOMAT research group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.

• Foreword xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgements xix1 Review of Processing Techniques in Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Polymers and Composites 1Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno, Vlastimil Kunc, and Brian Post1.1 Introduction 11.2 Auxiliary Systems and Equipment Configurations for Enhanced Functionality 61.2.1 Material Drying, Conveyance, and Control Systems 61.2.2 Machining and Postprocessing 71.2.3 Multimaterials Printing 71.2.4 Pick-and-Place System 81.2.5 Heated Enclosures 91.2.6 Integration of Automated Fiber Placement 101.2.7 Coextrusion of Wires 111.2.8 Continuous Fiber Printing 121.2.9 Build Table 121.2.10 Improving Layer Adhesion 141.2.11 Slicing Software and Printing Algorithms 151.3 Cost Efficiency, Industrialization, and Market Adoption 181.3.1 Market Adoption 201.4 Choosing the Optimal Motion Platform for LFAM Systems 211.5 Conclusions 24References 242 Polymer and Composite Materials for Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing 29Daniel Moreno Sánchez, Alberto Sanz de León, Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Halil Tekinalp, and Sergio I. Molina2.1 Introduction 292.2 Polymers Used in LFAM Systems 322.2.1 Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites 322.2.2 Thermoset Polymers and Reactive Chemistries 402.2.3 Sustainable and Bio-Based Materials 412.2.4 Speciality Polymers 472.2.4.1 Magnetic Materials 482.2.4.2 Dissolvable Materials 482.2.4.3 Foamed Materials 502.2.4.4 Nano-additivated Materials 502.3 Fundamental Materials Aspects for LFAM 512.3.1 Influence of the Rheological Behavior 522.3.2 Influence of Thermo-Mechanical Behavior 552.4 Recommendations for the Development of New Materials for LFAM 572.5 Conclusion 59References 593 Characterization of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing 69Alberto Sanz de León and Mirko Maturi3.1 Introduction 693.2 Rheology of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 703.3 Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 743.4 Thermal and Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 793.5 Microstructural Analysis of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Me 84References 874 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Polymeric Materials. Molds and Dies “Tooling” 93Daniel Moreno Nieto, Pedro Burgos Pintos, María de las Nieves Pizarro Ruiz, Sergio I. Molina, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen4.1 Introduction 934.1.1 The Need for Molds and Dies 954.2 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Molds and Dies 964.3 Design and Operation Requirements for Mold and Dies 1134.3.1 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding and Lay-Up Tooling 1144.3.2 Trim Tools and Fixtures 1144.3.3 Out-of-Autoclave Molds 1144.3.4 Autoclave Molds 1154.3.5 Compression Molding Molds 1154.3.6 Stamping Dies 1154.3.7 Concrete Casting Molds 1164.4 Material Selection Criteria for Molds and Dies 1164.5 Final Parts Materials 1184.6 Large-Format AM Mold PostProcessing and Machining 1204.6.1 Release Agents and Mold Coating 1214.6.2 Machining Strategies 1214.7 Conclusions 123References 1245 Direct Part Production Through Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 129Eric MacDonald, Lonnie Love, Brian Post, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno Sánchez, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen5.1 Introduction 1295.2 Main Application Sectors of Polymeric LFAM 1305.2.1 Automotive 1305.2.2 Aerospace 1305.2.3 Architecture 1315.2.4 Marine Applications 1345.2.5 Energy Applications 1375.2.6 Interior Design and Furniture 1385.3 Design Considerations for Polymeric LFAM 1415.3.1 Layer Configuration and Resolution of Printed Parts 1415.3.2 Deposition Nozzle 1425.3.3 Layer Time Dependence 1435.3.4 Geometrical Design Considerations 1435.3.4.1 Minimum Wall Thicknesses and Slim Elements 1445.3.4.2 Overhang Areas and Bridges 1455.3.4.3 Contour Configuration and Filling 1475.3.5 Topological Optimization 1485.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 150References 1506 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Process Review 155Leonardo Santana and Jorge Lino Alves6.1 Introduction 1556.2 Contextualization 1556.3 LFAM Technologies for Cement- and Clay-Based Materials Processing 1586.3.1 LFAM Technologies Based on Powder Bed and Material Jetting 1596.3.2 Extrusion-Based LFAM Technologies 1636.3.3 Other LFAM Technologies 1696.4 Final Consideration 170References 1717 Large-format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Materials Review 177Jorge Lino Alves and Leonardo Santana7.1 Introduction 1777.2 Contextualization 1777.3 Cement- and Clay-Based Materials for LFAM: A Review 1807.3.1 Cement-Based Materials 1807.3.2 Clay-Based Materials 1877.4 Final Consideration 192References 1928 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Characterization Methods 199Ana Guerrero, Eloy Asensio, and Fernando Fernández8.1 Introduction 1998.2 Specific Requirements for 3D Printing Materials 2038.2.1 Extrudability 2038.2.2 Buildability 2038.2.3 Mechanical Behavior 2048.3 Tests for Evaluating the Specific Requirements of 3D Printing Materials 2048.3.1 Flow Table 2048.3.2 Slump Test 2058.3.3 Squeezing Test 2068.3.4 V-Funnel Test 2078.3.5 Open Time 2088.3.6 Rheometer Testing 2088.3.7 Density 2108.3.8 Pastry Bag and Caulking Gun 2108.3.9 Setting Time 2118.3.10 Shape Retention Test 2148.3.11 Visual Inspection 2158.3.12 Hardened Mechanical Properties 2188.4 Conclusions 221References 2219 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cementitious and Geo Materials. General Considerations, Drivers, and Context 227Mohammed Alnaggar9.1 Why Large Format Additive Manufacturing in Construction 2279.1.1 LFAM Copes with the Custom Nature of Construction Projects 2279.1.2 Social Drivers for Construction LFAM 2289.1.3 Economic Drivers for Construction LFAM 2299.1.4 Environmental Impacts of Construction LFAM 2299.2 Components of a Construction LFAM System 2299.2.1 Foundation 2309.2.2 Material 2309.2.3 Material Delivery System 2329.2.4 Reinforcement 2329.2.5 Motion System 2349.2.5.1 Gantry Motion Systems 2359.2.5.2 Robotic Motion Systems 2369.2.5.3 Cable-Driven Motion Systems 2369.2.6 Process Control Software 2379.3 Construction LFAM Process Steps 2379.3.1 Structural Design 2379.3.2 Acquiring a Construction Permit 2399.3.3 Site Preparation 2399.3.4 Construction LFAM Operation 2399.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 2409.3.6 Equipment Removal, Structure Curing, and Site Restoration 2419.3.7 Building Finishing Up 2419.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 242References 24210 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clay Applications 245João Teixeira, Manuel Jesus, Elis Ribeiro, Bárbara Rangel, Jorge Lino Alves, and Lino Maia10.1 Introduction 24510.2 Applications of LFAM with Cement-Based Materials 24610.2.1 Artificial Reefs 24610.2.2 Urban Furniture 24710.2.3 Buildings 24810.2.3.1 In Situ Applications 24810.2.3.2 Off-Site Applications 24810.3 Applications of LFAM with Clay-Based Materials 25010.3.1 Art and Design 25110.3.2 Structures 25110.4 Exploring the Design Possibilities of LFAM with Cement and Clay for Facade Applications 25210.5 Opportunities 25510.6 Challenges 25810.7 A Showcase of LFAM Capabilities: Panel Concept 25910.7.1 Project Definition 25910.7.2 Design for LFAM 25910.7.3 3D Print Test and Validation 26110.8 Conclusions 264Acknowledgments 264References 26411 LFAM with Metallic Materials—Technology Review 269E. Aldalur, F. Veiga, and A. Suárez11.1 Introduction 26911.2 AM Technology Classification 27111.3 LFAM with Metallic Material 27411.4 Ded 27511.4.1 L-ded 27811.4.1.1 Laser Powder-Based DED 27911.4.1.2 Laser Wire Based-DED 28011.4.2 Eb-ded 28111.4.3 Arc-DED 28211.5 Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing 28511.6 Friction-Based AM 28711.7 Metallic LFAM Solutions 288References 29012 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Metallic Materials – Materials Review 301Yukinori Yamamoto, Peeyush Nandwana, Vanshika Singh, Wei Tang, Rangasayee Kannan, and Saket Thapliyal12.1 Introduction 30112.2 Deposition Process 30112.2.1 Solidification 30312.2.2 As-deposited Microstructure 30612.2.3 Postprocess Heat Treatment 30912.2.3.1 Ferrous Alloys 31112.2.3.2 Nonferrous Materials 31512.3 Mechanical Properties 31712.3.1 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31712.3.2 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31812.3.3 Cryogenic Mechanical Properties 32212.4 Environmental Compatibility 32212.4.1 Corrosion Behavior 32412.4.2 Oxidation Resistance 32612.5 Combined Technology: Hybrid 32712.5.1 Role of Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of 316L Fabricated Using Hybrid Manufacturing 33112.5.2 Role of Humidity of Build Chamber During Hybrid Manufacturing on Part Performance 33412.5.3 Utilizing the Machining Component of Hybrid Manufacturing for Localized Microstructure Control 33612.6 Conclusions 341References 34113 LFAM with Metallic Materials: Structure, Microstructure, and Characterization 353Luis Segovia-Guerrero, Nuria Baladés, and David L. Sales13.1 Introduction 35313.2 Porosity 35513.2.1 Porosity Characterization 36013.3 Phases 36113.4 Grain Size and Shape 36413.4.1 Characterization Techniques 37013.5 Residual Stress 37113.5.1 Characterization Methods of Residual Stress 37313.6 Chemical Composition 37713.7 Dimensional and Tolerance Control in LFAM 37913.8 Conclusion 383References 38414 LFAM with Metallic Materials—Applications 393F. Veiga, E. Villabona, A. Suárez, P. Rivero, and E. Aldalur14.1 Introduction 39314.2 Industrial Applications of LFAM with Metallic Materials 39414.2.1 Aerospace 39414.2.2 Automotive Industry 39714.2.3 Construction Industry 39914.2.4 Railways 40114.2.5 Marine 40214.2.6 Oil and Gas 40614.2.7 Artistic and Creative Applications 40914.2.8 Molds 41014.2.9 Sports Equipment 41214.2.10 Other Industrial Applications 41314.3 Advancements in the Application of AI, Design, and Material Innovation to LFAM 41614.3.1 Integration of AI 41614.3.2 Advanced Materials and Their Impact 42014.3.3 New Developments in Design for LFAM 42014.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 424References 42515 Modeling and Simulation of LFAM: Polymers, Metals, and Cements and Clays, a Review 439Yousub Lee, Komal Chawla, Mohammed Alnaggar, Wen Dong, and Seokpum Kim15.1 Metal Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 43915.1.1 Advancing Metal Manufacturing: Traditional Castings to Additive Manufacturing for Large-Scale Components 43915.1.2 Digital Design for Controlling Distortion and Residual Stress 44015.1.2.1 Tool Path Planning and Thermal Sensors 44015.1.2.2 Distortion and Interactive Control 44415.1.2.3 Manipulation of Residual Stress Using Phase Transformation 44615.1.2.4 Distortion and Residual Stresses in Hybrid Additive and Subtractive Manufacturing 44915.1.3 Challenges and Concluding Remarks 45115.2 Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 45215.2.1 Advancements and Challenges in Large-Scale Polymer Additive Manufacturing Technology 45215.2.2 Modeling and Simulation of Manufacturing Process 45415.2.2.1 Predict the Temperature History, Deformation, and Residual Stresses 45515.2.2.2 Optimize the Layer Deposition Time 45615.2.2.3 Predict the Fiber Orientation 45815.2.2.4 Multiscale Numerical Modeling for Digital Twin 46015.2.2.5 Challenges and Opportunities 46215.2.2.6 Conclusions 46215.3 Cementitious and Geomaterial Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing 46315.3.1 Modeling of Different LFAM Stages 46315.3.2 Modeling of Different Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanics Involved in Lfam 46615.3.3 Data and Information Aspects in Modeling LFAM of Cementitious Materials 46715.3.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 467Acknowledgements 468References 468Index 475

Daniel Moreno Nieto, PhD, is full time lecturer at Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, member of the INNANOMAT Research Group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.Daniel Moreno Sánchez, PhD, is full time lecturer at Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, member of the INNANOMAT Research Group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.Ahmed Arabi Hassen, PhD, is the Group Leader for the Composites Innovation (CI) Group in the Manufacturing Science Division (MSD) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), USA.Eric MacDonald, PhD, is Professor for Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering at the University of Texas at El Paso, USA.Sergio I. Molina, PhD, Full Professor and Group Leader of the INNANOMAT research group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.

• Foreword xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgements xix1 Review of Processing Techniques in Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Polymers and Composites 1Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno, Vlastimil Kunc, and Brian Post1.1 Introduction 11.2 Auxiliary Systems and Equipment Configurations for Enhanced Functionality 61.2.1 Material Drying, Conveyance, and Control Systems 61.2.2 Machining and Postprocessing 71.2.3 Multimaterials Printing 71.2.4 Pick-and-Place System 81.2.5 Heated Enclosures 91.2.6 Integration of Automated Fiber Placement 101.2.7 Coextrusion of Wires 111.2.8 Continuous Fiber Printing 121.2.9 Build Table 121.2.10 Improving Layer Adhesion 141.2.11 Slicing Software and Printing Algorithms 151.3 Cost Efficiency, Industrialization, and Market Adoption 181.3.1 Market Adoption 201.4 Choosing the Optimal Motion Platform for LFAM Systems 211.5 Conclusions 24References 242 Polymer and Composite Materials for Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing 29Daniel Moreno Sánchez, Alberto Sanz de León, Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Halil Tekinalp, and Sergio I. Molina2.1 Introduction 292.2 Polymers Used in LFAM Systems 322.2.1 Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites 322.2.2 Thermoset Polymers and Reactive Chemistries 402.2.3 Sustainable and Bio-Based Materials 412.2.4 Speciality Polymers 472.2.4.1 Magnetic Materials 482.2.4.2 Dissolvable Materials 482.2.4.3 Foamed Materials 502.2.4.4 Nano-additivated Materials 502.3 Fundamental Materials Aspects for LFAM 512.3.1 Influence of the Rheological Behavior 522.3.2 Influence of Thermo-Mechanical Behavior 552.4 Recommendations for the Development of New Materials for LFAM 572.5 Conclusion 59References 593 Characterization of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing 69Alberto Sanz de León and Mirko Maturi3.1 Introduction 693.2 Rheology of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 703.3 Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 743.4 Thermal and Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 793.5 Microstructural Analysis of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Me 84References 874 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Polymeric Materials. Molds and Dies “Tooling” 93Daniel Moreno Nieto, Pedro Burgos Pintos, María de las Nieves Pizarro Ruiz, Sergio I. Molina, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen4.1 Introduction 934.1.1 The Need for Molds and Dies 954.2 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Molds and Dies 964.3 Design and Operation Requirements for Mold and Dies 1134.3.1 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding and Lay-Up Tooling 1144.3.2 Trim Tools and Fixtures 1144.3.3 Out-of-Autoclave Molds 1144.3.4 Autoclave Molds 1154.3.5 Compression Molding Molds 1154.3.6 Stamping Dies 1154.3.7 Concrete Casting Molds 1164.4 Material Selection Criteria for Molds and Dies 1164.5 Final Parts Materials 1184.6 Large-Format AM Mold PostProcessing and Machining 1204.6.1 Release Agents and Mold Coating 1214.6.2 Machining Strategies 1214.7 Conclusions 123References 1245 Direct Part Production Through Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 129Eric MacDonald, Lonnie Love, Brian Post, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno Sánchez, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen5.1 Introduction 1295.2 Main Application Sectors of Polymeric LFAM 1305.2.1 Automotive 1305.2.2 Aerospace 1305.2.3 Architecture 1315.2.4 Marine Applications 1345.2.5 Energy Applications 1375.2.6 Interior Design and Furniture 1385.3 Design Considerations for Polymeric LFAM 1415.3.1 Layer Configuration and Resolution of Printed Parts 1415.3.2 Deposition Nozzle 1425.3.3 Layer Time Dependence 1435.3.4 Geometrical Design Considerations 1435.3.4.1 Minimum Wall Thicknesses and Slim Elements 1445.3.4.2 Overhang Areas and Bridges 1455.3.4.3 Contour Configuration and Filling 1475.3.5 Topological Optimization 1485.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 150References 1506 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Process Review 155Leonardo Santana and Jorge Lino Alves6.1 Introduction 1556.2 Contextualization 1556.3 LFAM Technologies for Cement- and Clay-Based Materials Processing 1586.3.1 LFAM Technologies Based on Powder Bed and Material Jetting 1596.3.2 Extrusion-Based LFAM Technologies 1636.3.3 Other LFAM Technologies 1696.4 Final Consideration 170References 1717 Large-format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Materials Review 177Jorge Lino Alves and Leonardo Santana7.1 Introduction 1777.2 Contextualization 1777.3 Cement- and Clay-Based Materials for LFAM: A Review 1807.3.1 Cement-Based Materials 1807.3.2 Clay-Based Materials 1877.4 Final Consideration 192References 1928 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Characterization Methods 199Ana Guerrero, Eloy Asensio, and Fernando Fernández8.1 Introduction 1998.2 Specific Requirements for 3D Printing Materials 2038.2.1 Extrudability 2038.2.2 Buildability 2038.2.3 Mechanical Behavior 2048.3 Tests for Evaluating the Specific Requirements of 3D Printing Materials 2048.3.1 Flow Table 2048.3.2 Slump Test 2058.3.3 Squeezing Test 2068.3.4 V-Funnel Test 2078.3.5 Open Time 2088.3.6 Rheometer Testing 2088.3.7 Density 2108.3.8 Pastry Bag and Caulking Gun 2108.3.9 Setting Time 2118.3.10 Shape Retention Test 2148.3.11 Visual Inspection 2158.3.12 Hardened Mechanical Properties 2188.4 Conclusions 221References 2219 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cementitious and Geo Materials. General Considerations, Drivers, and Context 227Mohammed Alnaggar9.1 Why Large Format Additive Manufacturing in Construction 2279.1.1 LFAM Copes with the Custom Nature of Construction Projects 2279.1.2 Social Drivers for Construction LFAM 2289.1.3 Economic Drivers for Construction LFAM 2299.1.4 Environmental Impacts of Construction LFAM 2299.2 Components of a Construction LFAM System 2299.2.1 Foundation 2309.2.2 Material 2309.2.3 Material Delivery System 2329.2.4 Reinforcement 2329.2.5 Motion System 2349.2.5.1 Gantry Motion Systems 2359.2.5.2 Robotic Motion Systems 2369.2.5.3 Cable-Driven Motion Systems 2369.2.6 Process Control Software 2379.3 Construction LFAM Process Steps 2379.3.1 Structural Design 2379.3.2 Acquiring a Construction Permit 2399.3.3 Site Preparation 2399.3.4 Construction LFAM Operation 2399.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 2409.3.6 Equipment Removal, Structure Curing, and Site Restoration 2419.3.7 Building Finishing Up 2419.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 242References 24210 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clay Applications 245João Teixeira, Manuel Jesus, Elis Ribeiro, Bárbara Rangel, Jorge Lino Alves, and Lino Maia10.1 Introduction 24510.2 Applications of LFAM with Cement-Based Materials 24610.2.1 Artificial Reefs 24610.2.2 Urban Furniture 24710.2.3 Buildings 24810.2.3.1 In Situ Applications 24810.2.3.2 Off-Site Applications 24810.3 Applications of LFAM with Clay-Based Materials 25010.3.1 Art and Design 25110.3.2 Structures 25110.4 Exploring the Design Possibilities of LFAM with Cement and Clay for Facade Applications 25210.5 Opportunities 25510.6 Challenges 25810.7 A Showcase of LFAM Capabilities: Panel Concept 25910.7.1 Project Definition 25910.7.2 Design for LFAM 25910.7.3 3D Print Test and Validation 26110.8 Conclusions 264Acknowledgments 264References 26411 LFAM with Metallic Materials—Technology Review 269E. Aldalur, F. Veiga, and A. Suárez11.1 Introduction 26911.2 AM Technology Classification 27111.3 LFAM with Metallic Material 27411.4 Ded 27511.4.1 L-ded 27811.4.1.1 Laser Powder-Based DED 27911.4.1.2 Laser Wire Based-DED 28011.4.2 Eb-ded 28111.4.3 Arc-DED 28211.5 Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing 28511.6 Friction-Based AM 28711.7 Metallic LFAM Solutions 288References 29012 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Metallic Materials – Materials Review 301Yukinori Yamamoto, Peeyush Nandwana, Vanshika Singh, Wei Tang, Rangasayee Kannan, and Saket Thapliyal12.1 Introduction 30112.2 Deposition Process 30112.2.1 Solidification 30312.2.2 As-deposited Microstructure 30612.2.3 Postprocess Heat Treatment 30912.2.3.1 Ferrous Alloys 31112.2.3.2 Nonferrous Materials 31512.3 Mechanical Properties 31712.3.1 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31712.3.2 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31812.3.3 Cryogenic Mechanical Properties 32212.4 Environmental Compatibility 32212.4.1 Corrosion Behavior 32412.4.2 Oxidation Resistance 32612.5 Combined Technology: Hybrid 32712.5.1 Role of Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of 316L Fabricated Using Hybrid Manufacturing 33112.5.2 Role of Humidity of Build Chamber During Hybrid Manufacturing on Part Performance 33412.5.3 Utilizing the Machining Component of Hybrid Manufacturing for Localized Microstructure Control 33612.6 Conclusions 341References 34113 LFAM with Metallic Materials: Structure, Microstructure, and Characterization 353Luis Segovia-Guerrero, Nuria Baladés, and David L. Sales13.1 Introduction 35313.2 Porosity 35513.2.1 Porosity Characterization 36013.3 Phases 36113.4 Grain Size and Shape 36413.4.1 Characterization Techniques 37013.5 Residual Stress 37113.5.1 Characterization Methods of Residual Stress 37313.6 Chemical Composition 37713.7 Dimensional and Tolerance Control in LFAM 37913.8 Conclusion 383References 38414 LFAM with Metallic Materials—Applications 393F. Veiga, E. Villabona, A. Suárez, P. Rivero, and E. Aldalur14.1 Introduction 39314.2 Industrial Applications of LFAM with Metallic Materials 39414.2.1 Aerospace 39414.2.2 Automotive Industry 39714.2.3 Construction Industry 39914.2.4 Railways 40114.2.5 Marine 40214.2.6 Oil and Gas 40614.2.7 Artistic and Creative Applications 40914.2.8 Molds 41014.2.9 Sports Equipment 41214.2.10 Other Industrial Applications 41314.3 Advancements in the Application of AI, Design, and Material Innovation to LFAM 41614.3.1 Integration of AI 41614.3.2 Advanced Materials and Their Impact 42014.3.3 New Developments in Design for LFAM 42014.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 424References 42515 Modeling and Simulation of LFAM: Polymers, Metals, and Cements and Clays, a Review 439Yousub Lee, Komal Chawla, Mohammed Alnaggar, Wen Dong, and Seokpum Kim15.1 Metal Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 43915.1.1 Advancing Metal Manufacturing: Traditional Castings to Additive Manufacturing for Large-Scale Components 43915.1.2 Digital Design for Controlling Distortion and Residual Stress 44015.1.2.1 Tool Path Planning and Thermal Sensors 44015.1.2.2 Distortion and Interactive Control 44415.1.2.3 Manipulation of Residual Stress Using Phase Transformation 44615.1.2.4 Distortion and Residual Stresses in Hybrid Additive and Subtractive Manufacturing 44915.1.3 Challenges and Concluding Remarks 45115.2 Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 45215.2.1 Advancements and Challenges in Large-Scale Polymer Additive Manufacturing Technology 45215.2.2 Modeling and Simulation of Manufacturing Process 45415.2.2.1 Predict the Temperature History, Deformation, and Residual Stresses 45515.2.2.2 Optimize the Layer Deposition Time 45615.2.2.3 Predict the Fiber Orientation 45815.2.2.4 Multiscale Numerical Modeling for Digital Twin 46015.2.2.5 Challenges and Opportunities 46215.2.2.6 Conclusions 46215.3 Cementitious and Geomaterial Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing 46315.3.1 Modeling of Different LFAM Stages 46315.3.2 Modeling of Different Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanics Involved in Lfam 46615.3.3 Data and Information Aspects in Modeling LFAM of Cementitious Materials 46715.3.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 467Acknowledgements 468References 468Index 475

Daniel Moreno Nieto, PhD, is full time lecturer at Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, member of the INNANOMAT Research Group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.Daniel Moreno Sánchez, PhD, is full time lecturer at Escuela Superior de Ingeniería, member of the INNANOMAT Research Group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.Ahmed Arabi Hassen, PhD, is the Group Leader for the Composites Innovation (CI) Group in the Manufacturing Science Division (MSD) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), USA.Eric MacDonald, PhD, is Professor for Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering at the University of Texas at El Paso, USA.Sergio I. Molina, PhD, Full Professor and Group Leader of the INNANOMAT research group, IMEYMAT, Universidad de Cádiz, Spain.

• Foreword xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgements xix1 Review of Processing Techniques in Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Polymers and Composites 1Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno, Vlastimil Kunc, and Brian Post1.1 Introduction 11.2 Auxiliary Systems and Equipment Configurations for Enhanced Functionality 61.2.1 Material Drying, Conveyance, and Control Systems 61.2.2 Machining and Postprocessing 71.2.3 Multimaterials Printing 71.2.4 Pick-and-Place System 81.2.5 Heated Enclosures 91.2.6 Integration of Automated Fiber Placement 101.2.7 Coextrusion of Wires 111.2.8 Continuous Fiber Printing 121.2.9 Build Table 121.2.10 Improving Layer Adhesion 141.2.11 Slicing Software and Printing Algorithms 151.3 Cost Efficiency, Industrialization, and Market Adoption 181.3.1 Market Adoption 201.4 Choosing the Optimal Motion Platform for LFAM Systems 211.5 Conclusions 24References 242 Polymer and Composite Materials for Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing 29Daniel Moreno Sánchez, Alberto Sanz de León, Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Halil Tekinalp, and Sergio I. Molina2.1 Introduction 292.2 Polymers Used in LFAM Systems 322.2.1 Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites 322.2.2 Thermoset Polymers and Reactive Chemistries 402.2.3 Sustainable and Bio-Based Materials 412.2.4 Speciality Polymers 472.2.4.1 Magnetic Materials 482.2.4.2 Dissolvable Materials 482.2.4.3 Foamed Materials 502.2.4.4 Nano-additivated Materials 502.3 Fundamental Materials Aspects for LFAM 512.3.1 Influence of the Rheological Behavior 522.3.2 Influence of Thermo-Mechanical Behavior 552.4 Recommendations for the Development of New Materials for LFAM 572.5 Conclusion 59References 593 Characterization of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing 69Alberto Sanz de León and Mirko Maturi3.1 Introduction 693.2 Rheology of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 703.3 Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 743.4 Thermal and Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 793.5 Microstructural Analysis of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Me 84References 874 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Polymeric Materials. Molds and Dies “Tooling” 93Daniel Moreno Nieto, Pedro Burgos Pintos, María de las Nieves Pizarro Ruiz, Sergio I. Molina, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen4.1 Introduction 934.1.1 The Need for Molds and Dies 954.2 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Molds and Dies 964.3 Design and Operation Requirements for Mold and Dies 1134.3.1 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding and Lay-Up Tooling 1144.3.2 Trim Tools and Fixtures 1144.3.3 Out-of-Autoclave Molds 1144.3.4 Autoclave Molds 1154.3.5 Compression Molding Molds 1154.3.6 Stamping Dies 1154.3.7 Concrete Casting Molds 1164.4 Material Selection Criteria for Molds and Dies 1164.5 Final Parts Materials 1184.6 Large-Format AM Mold PostProcessing and Machining 1204.6.1 Release Agents and Mold Coating 1214.6.2 Machining Strategies 1214.7 Conclusions 123References 1245 Direct Part Production Through Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 129Eric MacDonald, Lonnie Love, Brian Post, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno Sánchez, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen5.1 Introduction 1295.2 Main Application Sectors of Polymeric LFAM 1305.2.1 Automotive 1305.2.2 Aerospace 1305.2.3 Architecture 1315.2.4 Marine Applications 1345.2.5 Energy Applications 1375.2.6 Interior Design and Furniture 1385.3 Design Considerations for Polymeric LFAM 1415.3.1 Layer Configuration and Resolution of Printed Parts 1415.3.2 Deposition Nozzle 1425.3.3 Layer Time Dependence 1435.3.4 Geometrical Design Considerations 1435.3.4.1 Minimum Wall Thicknesses and Slim Elements 1445.3.4.2 Overhang Areas and Bridges 1455.3.4.3 Contour Configuration and Filling 1475.3.5 Topological Optimization 1485.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 150References 1506 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Process Review 155Leonardo Santana and Jorge Lino Alves6.1 Introduction 1556.2 Contextualization 1556.3 LFAM Technologies for Cement- and Clay-Based Materials Processing 1586.3.1 LFAM Technologies Based on Powder Bed and Material Jetting 1596.3.2 Extrusion-Based LFAM Technologies 1636.3.3 Other LFAM Technologies 1696.4 Final Consideration 170References 1717 Large-format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Materials Review 177Jorge Lino Alves and Leonardo Santana7.1 Introduction 1777.2 Contextualization 1777.3 Cement- and Clay-Based Materials for LFAM: A Review 1807.3.1 Cement-Based Materials 1807.3.2 Clay-Based Materials 1877.4 Final Consideration 192References 1928 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Characterization Methods 199Ana Guerrero, Eloy Asensio, and Fernando Fernández8.1 Introduction 1998.2 Specific Requirements for 3D Printing Materials 2038.2.1 Extrudability 2038.2.2 Buildability 2038.2.3 Mechanical Behavior 2048.3 Tests for Evaluating the Specific Requirements of 3D Printing Materials 2048.3.1 Flow Table 2048.3.2 Slump Test 2058.3.3 Squeezing Test 2068.3.4 V-Funnel Test 2078.3.5 Open Time 2088.3.6 Rheometer Testing 2088.3.7 Density 2108.3.8 Pastry Bag and Caulking Gun 2108.3.9 Setting Time 2118.3.10 Shape Retention Test 2148.3.11 Visual Inspection 2158.3.12 Hardened Mechanical Properties 2188.4 Conclusions 221References 2219 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cementitious and Geo Materials. General Considerations, Drivers, and Context 227Mohammed Alnaggar9.1 Why Large Format Additive Manufacturing in Construction 2279.1.1 LFAM Copes with the Custom Nature of Construction Projects 2279.1.2 Social Drivers for Construction LFAM 2289.1.3 Economic Drivers for Construction LFAM 2299.1.4 Environmental Impacts of Construction LFAM 2299.2 Components of a Construction LFAM System 2299.2.1 Foundation 2309.2.2 Material 2309.2.3 Material Delivery System 2329.2.4 Reinforcement 2329.2.5 Motion System 2349.2.5.1 Gantry Motion Systems 2359.2.5.2 Robotic Motion Systems 2369.2.5.3 Cable-Driven Motion Systems 2369.2.6 Process Control Software 2379.3 Construction LFAM Process Steps 2379.3.1 Structural Design 2379.3.2 Acquiring a Construction Permit 2399.3.3 Site Preparation 2399.3.4 Construction LFAM Operation 2399.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 2409.3.6 Equipment Removal, Structure Curing, and Site Restoration 2419.3.7 Building Finishing Up 2419.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 242References 24210 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clay Applications 245João Teixeira, Manuel Jesus, Elis Ribeiro, Bárbara Rangel, Jorge Lino Alves, and Lino Maia10.1 Introduction 24510.2 Applications of LFAM with Cement-Based Materials 24610.2.1 Artificial Reefs 24610.2.2 Urban Furniture 24710.2.3 Buildings 24810.2.3.1 In Situ Applications 24810.2.3.2 Off-Site Applications 24810.3 Applications of LFAM with Clay-Based Materials 25010.3.1 Art and Design 25110.3.2 Structures 25110.4 Exploring the Design Possibilities of LFAM with Cement and Clay for Facade Applications 25210.5 Opportunities 25510.6 Challenges 25810.7 A Showcase of LFAM Capabilities: Panel Concept 25910.7.1 Project Definition 25910.7.2 Design for LFAM 25910.7.3 3D Print Test and Validation 26110.8 Conclusions 264Acknowledgments 264References 26411 LFAM with Metallic Materials—Technology Review 269E. Aldalur, F. Veiga, and A. Suárez11.1 Introduction 26911.2 AM Technology Classification 27111.3 LFAM with Metallic Material 27411.4 Ded 27511.4.1 L-ded 27811.4.1.1 Laser Powder-Based DED 27911.4.1.2 Laser Wire Based-DED 28011.4.2 Eb-ded 28111.4.3 Arc-DED 28211.5 Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing 28511.6 Friction-Based AM 28711.7 Metallic LFAM Solutions 288References 29012 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Metallic Materials – Materials Review 301Yukinori Yamamoto, Peeyush Nandwana, Vanshika Singh, Wei Tang, Rangasayee Kannan, and Saket Thapliyal12.1 Introduction 30112.2 Deposition Process 30112.2.1 Solidification 30312.2.2 As-deposited Microstructure 30612.2.3 Postprocess Heat Treatment 30912.2.3.1 Ferrous Alloys 31112.2.3.2 Nonferrous Materials 31512.3 Mechanical Properties 31712.3.1 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31712.3.2 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties 31812.3.3 Cryogenic Mechanical Properties 32212.4 Environmental Compatibility 32212.4.1 Corrosion Behavior 32412.4.2 Oxidation Resistance 32612.5 Combined Technology: Hybrid 32712.5.1 Role of Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of 316L Fabricated Using Hybrid Manufacturing 33112.5.2 Role of Humidity of Build Chamber During Hybrid Manufacturing on Part Performance 33412.5.3 Utilizing the Machining Component of Hybrid Manufacturing for Localized Microstructure Control 33612.6 Conclusions 341References 34113 LFAM with Metallic Materials: Structure, Microstructure, and Characterization 353Luis Segovia-Guerrero, Nuria Baladés, and David L. Sales13.1 Introduction 35313.2 Porosity 35513.2.1 Porosity Characterization 36013.3 Phases 36113.4 Grain Size and Shape 36413.4.1 Characterization Techniques 37013.5 Residual Stress 37113.5.1 Characterization Methods of Residual Stress 37313.6 Chemical Composition 37713.7 Dimensional and Tolerance Control in LFAM 37913.8 Conclusion 383References 38414 LFAM with Metallic Materials—Applications 393F. Veiga, E. Villabona, A. Suárez, P. Rivero, and E. Aldalur14.1 Introduction 39314.2 Industrial Applications of LFAM with Metallic Materials 39414.2.1 Aerospace 39414.2.2 Automotive Industry 39714.2.3 Construction Industry 39914.2.4 Railways 40114.2.5 Marine 40214.2.6 Oil and Gas 40614.2.7 Artistic and Creative Applications 40914.2.8 Molds 41014.2.9 Sports Equipment 41214.2.10 Other Industrial Applications 41314.3 Advancements in the Application of AI, Design, and Material Innovation to LFAM 41614.3.1 Integration of AI 41614.3.2 Advanced Materials and Their Impact 42014.3.3 New Developments in Design for LFAM 42014.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 424References 42515 Modeling and Simulation of LFAM: Polymers, Metals, and Cements and Clays, a Review 439Yousub Lee, Komal Chawla, Mohammed Alnaggar, Wen Dong, and Seokpum Kim15.1 Metal Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 43915.1.1 Advancing Metal Manufacturing: Traditional Castings to Additive Manufacturing for Large-Scale Components 43915.1.2 Digital Design for Controlling Distortion and Residual Stress 44015.1.2.1 Tool Path Planning and Thermal Sensors 44015.1.2.2 Distortion and Interactive Control 44415.1.2.3 Manipulation of Residual Stress Using Phase Transformation 44615.1.2.4 Distortion and Residual Stresses in Hybrid Additive and Subtractive Manufacturing 44915.1.3 Challenges and Concluding Remarks 45115.2 Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 45215.2.1 Advancements and Challenges in Large-Scale Polymer Additive Manufacturing Technology 45215.2.2 Modeling and Simulation of Manufacturing Process 45415.2.2.1 Predict the Temperature History, Deformation, and Residual Stresses 45515.2.2.2 Optimize the Layer Deposition Time 45615.2.2.3 Predict the Fiber Orientation 45815.2.2.4 Multiscale Numerical Modeling for Digital Twin 46015.2.2.5 Challenges and Opportunities 46215.2.2.6 Conclusions 46215.3 Cementitious and Geomaterial Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing 46315.3.1 Modeling of Different LFAM Stages 46315.3.2 Modeling of Different Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanics Involved in Lfam 46615.3.3 Data and Information Aspects in Modeling LFAM of Cementitious Materials 46715.3.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 467Acknowledgements 468References 468Index 475