Farhad Daftary - Böcker

Until recently the Isma`ilis were judged almost exclusively on the basis of the hostile accounts of their Muslim enemies and the fanciful tales of the Crusaders. As a result, numerous misconceptions were disseminated about the teachings and practices of the Isma'ilis, known in European tradition as the Assassins. In the 1930s, however, authentic Isma`ili texts began to be recovered from private collections which shed new light on mediaeval Isma`ili history and thought. This collective volume brings together some of the original results of modern scholarship in the area, written by leading contemporary authorities, as well as distinguished Islamists.

Until recently the Isma`ilis were judged almost exclusively on the basis of the hostile accounts of their Muslim enemies and the fanciful tales of the Crusaders. As a result, numerous misconceptions were disseminated about the teachings and practices of the Isma'ilis, known in European tradition as the Assassins. In the 1930s, however, authentic Isma`ili texts began to be recovered from private collections which shed new light on mediaeval Isma`ili history and thought. This collective volume brings together some of the original results of modern scholarship in the area, written by leading contemporary authorities, as well as distinguished Islamists.

The Isma'ilis represent the second largest Shii Muslim community after the Twelvers, and are today scattered throughout more than twenty-five countries in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe and North America. This 2007 second edition of this authoritative book traces the history and doctrinal development of the Isma'ilis from their origins in the formative period of Islam to the present day, a period of more than twelve centuries. All the major phases of Isma'ili history are covered, including the pre-Fatimid period, the Fatimid 'golden age', the Tayyibi-Mustali period and the history of the Nizari Isma'ilis of Persia and Syria before the Mongol invasions. The final part traces the history of the modern Isma'ilis, particularly the socio-economic progress of the Nizari communities. The new edition is a thorough revision and incorporates new material, an expanded bibliography and new illustrations. It will be invaluable reading for students of Islamic and Middle Eastern history.

The Isma'ilis represent the second largest Shii Muslim community after the Twelvers, and are today scattered throughout more than twenty-five countries in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe and North America. This 2007 second edition of this authoritative book traces the history and doctrinal development of the Isma'ilis from their origins in the formative period of Islam to the present day, a period of more than twelve centuries. All the major phases of Isma'ili history are covered, including the pre-Fatimid period, the Fatimid 'golden age', the Tayyibi-Mustali period and the history of the Nizari Isma'ilis of Persia and Syria before the Mongol invasions. The final part traces the history of the modern Isma'ilis, particularly the socio-economic progress of the Nizari communities. The new edition is a thorough revision and incorporates new material, an expanded bibliography and new illustrations. It will be invaluable reading for students of Islamic and Middle Eastern history.

Despite being one of the key Shi'i Muslim communities, the Ismailis were until recently studied primarily on the basis of the accounts of their enemies. This new introduction is the first to be based on modern scholarship, taking account of recently recovered Ismaili texts. It covers all the main developments in the major phases of Ismaili history, from the early formative period, through the Fatamid golden age and the Alamut and post-Alamut periods, to more recent history. Dealing only with the most important historical developments, this is a comprehensive and accessible survey for all newcomers to the subject.

The Ismailis are the second-largest Shi‘i community in the world today, settled in over 25 countries across Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and North America. They are the only Muslims to follow a living spiritual guide of their community, the Nizari Ismaili Imam. This book is the first collection of biographies of all the Ismaili Imams, from the seminal Imams of early Shi‘i Islam, through to those of the first ‘period of concealment’ when their public identities remained hidden, to the Imam-caliphs of the illustrious Fatimid dynasty, and those of the Alamut period, up to the Aga Khans of the modern period. The Ismaili Imams mines the rich scholarship of the developing field of Ismaili Studies, providing a simple and clear resource for the general reader, as well as a handy reference guide for scholars. This copiously illustrated book offers a snapshot of the lives, events, and legacies of all 49 Imams, and through them, of the Ismaili community’s storied past.

The ebook editions of this book are available open access under a [CC BY-NC-ND 4.0] licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by Institute of Ismaili Studies.I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili StudiesThe renaissance of Shi’i Islam began in the 9th/15th century when the Ismailis experienced the Anjudan revival and Twelver Shi’i traditions were also renewed. This renaissance gained further strength when the Safavids succeeded in establishing a state in the early decades of the 10th/16th century, making Ithna’ashari Shi’i Islam their official religion.The chapters in this open access book represent the most recent scholarship on the intellectual and spiritual life of the age and discuss what prepared the ground for its appearance as well as its achievements. Although the political and artistic developments of the Safavid era of the 10th-12th/16th-18th centuries have been extensively studied, the complexities of the different groups, movements and strands of thought in the renaissance of Shi’i Islam still remain largely unexplored. The major themes that characterised the Shi’i renaissance are explored, including: popular reactions to messianic movements; the development of legal theories and concepts; the investigation of theological and philosophical problems, above all by the ‘School of Isfahan’; Shi’i-Sufi interactions and intra-Shi'i relations; the collection of Shi’i hadith and its application in Shi’i exegesis; and the interplay between political considerations and religious beliefs.The eBook editions of this book are available open access under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by The Institute of Ismaili Studies.

The ebook editions of this book are available open access under a [CC BY-NC-ND 4.0] licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by Institute of Ismaili Studies.I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili StudiesThe renaissance of Shi’i Islam began in the 9th/15th century when the Ismailis experienced the Anjudan revival and Twelver Shi’i traditions were also renewed. This renaissance gained further strength when the Safavids succeeded in establishing a state in the early decades of the 10th/16th century, making Ithna’ashari Shi’i Islam their official religion.The chapters in this open access book represent the most recent scholarship on the intellectual and spiritual life of the age and discuss what prepared the ground for its appearance as well as its achievements. Although the political and artistic developments of the Safavid era of the 10th-12th/16th-18th centuries have been extensively studied, the complexities of the different groups, movements and strands of thought in the renaissance of Shi’i Islam still remain largely unexplored. The major themes that characterised the Shi’i renaissance are explored, including: popular reactions to messianic movements; the development of legal theories and concepts; the investigation of theological and philosophical problems, above all by the ‘School of Isfahan’; Shi’i-Sufi interactions and intra-Shi'i relations; the collection of Shi’i hadith and its application in Shi’i exegesis; and the interplay between political considerations and religious beliefs.The eBook editions of this book are available open access under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by The Institute of Ismaili Studies.

I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies has published the following work as open access.The Fatimid caliphs (297–567/909–1171), who were also the Ismaili Imams, reigned over a vast state stretching from North Africa (including Egypt) to Sicily, Syria and the Hijaz. Under Fatimid patronage, the arts and sciences flourished alongside Ismaili thought and literature. An extensive trade network was centred on their capital, Cairo, facilitating cosmopolitan exchange across their caliphate, the Mediterranean and other lands. This led to innovation in the production of decorative arts, monumental building programmes, international commerce and significant intellectual exchange.The original research of 22 scholars is here organised into four sections on aspects of Fatimid cosmopolitanism, covering religion and statecraft, the Fatimid legacy reconsidered, ceremony and symbolism and art and archaeology.Contributors to this volume include Ali Asgar Hussamuddin Alibhai, Khalil Andani, Dina Ishak Bakhoum, Daniel Beben, Doris Behrens-Abouseif, Gregory Bilotto, Anna Contadini, Delia Cortese, Farhad Daftary, Valérie Gonzalez, Shainool Jiwa, Hasan al-Khoee, Juan de Lara, Ayala Lester, Bernard O’Kane, Marcus Pilz, Stéphane Pradines, Jennifer A. Pruitt, Yossef Rapoport, Paula Sanders, Avinoam Shalem, Yasser Tabbaa, Jamel A. Velji and Paul E. Walker.The ebook editions of this book are available open access under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by the Institute of Ismaili Studies.

I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies has published the following work as open access.The Fatimid caliphs (297–567/909–1171), who were also the Ismaili Imams, reigned over a vast state stretching from North Africa (including Egypt) to Sicily, Syria and the Hijaz. Under Fatimid patronage, the arts and sciences flourished alongside Ismaili thought and literature. An extensive trade network was centred on their capital, Cairo, facilitating cosmopolitan exchange across their caliphate, the Mediterranean and other lands. This led to innovation in the production of decorative arts, monumental building programmes, international commerce and significant intellectual exchange.The original research of 22 scholars is here organised into four sections on aspects of Fatimid cosmopolitanism, covering religion and statecraft, the Fatimid legacy reconsidered, ceremony and symbolism and art and archaeology.Contributors to this volume include Ali Asgar Hussamuddin Alibhai, Khalil Andani, Dina Ishak Bakhoum, Daniel Beben, Doris Behrens-Abouseif, Gregory Bilotto, Anna Contadini, Delia Cortese, Farhad Daftary, Valérie Gonzalez, Shainool Jiwa, Hasan al-Khoee, Juan de Lara, Ayala Lester, Bernard O’Kane, Marcus Pilz, Stéphane Pradines, Jennifer A. Pruitt, Yossef Rapoport, Paula Sanders, Avinoam Shalem, Yasser Tabbaa, Jamel A. Velji and Paul E. Walker.The ebook editions of this book are available open access under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by the Institute of Ismaili Studies.

The Ismaili Muslims, who belong to the Shia branch of Islam, live in over 25 different countries around the world, mainly in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Their history has typically been linked to the history of the various countries in which they live, but the worldwide community is united under Prince Karim Aga Khan, the spiritual leader and 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims. Few fields of Islamic studies have witnessed as drastic a change as Ismaili studies, due in part to the recent discovery of numerous historical texts, and author Farhad Daftary makes extensive use of these new sources in the Historical Dictionary of the Ismailis.This comprehensive new reference work is the first of its kind on the Ismailis and presents a summary of the findings of modern scholarship on the Ismaili Shia Muslims and different facets of their heritage. The dictionary covers all phases of Ismaili history as well as the main doctrines of the community. It includes an introductory chapter, which provides a broad historical survey of the Ismailis, followed by alphabetical entries on all major aspects of the community, such as key figures, institutions, traditions, and doctrines. It also contains a chronology, genealogical tables, a glossary, and a substantial bibliography. This book is an excellent access point for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more about the Ismailis.

The Ismailis represent an important Shiʿi Muslim community with rich intellectual and literary traditions. The complex history of the Ismailis dates back to the second/eighth century when they separated from other Shiʿi groups under the leadership of their own imams. Soon afterwards, the Ismailis organised a dynamic, revolutionary movement, known as the daʿwa or mission, for uprooting the Sunni regime of the Abbasids and establishing a new Shiʿi caliphate headed by the Ismaili imam. By the end of the third/ninth century, the Ismaili dāʿīs, operating secretly on behalf of the movement, were active in almost every region of the Muslim world, from Central Asia and Persia to Yemen, Egypt and the Maghrib.This book brings together a collection of the best works from Farhad Daftary, one of the foremost authorities in the field. The studies cover a range of specialised topics related to Ismaili history, historiography, institutions, theology, law and philosophy, amongst other intellectual traditions elaborated by the Ismailis.The collation of these invaluable studies into one book will be of great interest to the Ismaili community as well to anyone studying Islam in general, or Shiʿi Islam in particular.

The Ismailis represent an important Shiʿi Muslim community with rich intellectual and literary traditions. The complex history of the Ismailis dates back to the second/eighth century when they separated from other Shiʿi groups under the leadership of their own imams. Soon afterwards, the Ismailis organised a dynamic, revolutionary movement, known as the daʿwa or mission, for uprooting the Sunni regime of the Abbasids and establishing a new Shiʿi caliphate headed by the Ismaili imam. By the end of the third/ninth century, the Ismaili dāʿīs, operating secretly on behalf of the movement, were active in almost every region of the Muslim world, from Central Asia and Persia to Yemen, Egypt and the Maghrib.This book brings together a collection of the best works from Farhad Daftary, one of the foremost authorities in the field. The studies cover a range of specialised topics related to Ismaili history, historiography, institutions, theology, law and philosophy, amongst other intellectual traditions elaborated by the Ismailis.The collation of these invaluable studies into one book will be of great interest to the Ismaili community as well to anyone studying Islam in general, or Shiʿi Islam in particular.

The Ismailis represent an important Shi’i Muslim community, who are now scattered in more than 30 countries of Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and North America. The Ismailis have had a long and eventful history dating back to the formative period of Islam. This dictionary, the first work of reference of its kind, presents the findings of modern scholarship on the Ismailis and different facets of their heritage. It covers all the major phases of Ismaili history and thought, including major and minor divisions within the Ismaili community. The main theological and doctrinal concepts are also covered. Designed as a mini encyclopedia, this dictionary serves as first point of reference for information on all the key Ismaili figures, concepts, institutions, and traditions, as well as regions of importance in Ismaili history. In addition, numerous Muslim dynasties and figures with whom the Ismailis have come into contact are included. This second edition of the dictionary, first published in 2012, represents a thorough updating of the entries, with many new entries also added. Another main feature of this edition is the inclusion of many new items to all sections of the dictionary’s extensive bibliography.Historical Dictionary of the Ismailis, Second Edition contains a chronology, an introduction, an extensive bibliography, and cross-referenced entries on key Ismaili figures, concepts, institutions, and traditions, as well as regions of importance in Ismaili history. In addition, numerous Muslim dynasties and figures with whom the Ismailis have come into contact are included. This book is an excellent resource for students, researchers, and anyone wanting to know more about Ismailis.

This open access title looks at Shi'i Islam, with its rich and extensive history, has played a crucial role in the evolution of Islam as both a major world religion and civilization. The prolific achievements of Shi'i theologians, philosophers and others are testament to the spiritual and intellectual wealth of this community. Yet Shi'i studies has unjustly remained a long-neglected field, despite the important contribution that Shi'ism has made to Islamic traditions. Only in recent decades, partially spurred by global interest in political events of the Middle East, have scholars made some significant contributions in this area. The Study of Shi'i Islam presents papers originally delivered at the first international colloquium dedicated exclusively to Shi'i studies, held in 2010 at The Institute of Ismaili Studies, London. Within the book are eight sections, namely, history, the Qur'an and its Shi'i interpretations, hadith, law, authority, theology, rites and rituals, and intellectual traditions and philosophy.Each section begins with an introduction contextualizing the aspects of studying Shi'i Islam particular to its theme, before going on to address topics such as the state of the field, methodology and tools, and the primary issues with which contemporary scholars of Shi'i studies are dealing. The scope and depth here covered makes this book of especial interest to researchers and students alike within the field of Islamic studies. The volume benefits from the diverse expertise of nearly 30 world-class scholars, including Mohammad-Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar-Asher, Farhad Daftary, Daniel De Smet, Gerald R. Hawting, Nader El-Bizri, Etan Kohlberg, Wilferd Madelung, Andrew Newman, Ismail K. Poonawala, Sabine Schmidtke and Paul E. Walker.The ebook editions of this book are available open access under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence on bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by The Institute of Ismaili Studies LTD.

I.B.Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies Few fields of Islamic studies have witnessed as much progress in modern times as Ismaili studies, and in even fewer instances has the role of a single individual been as pivotal in initiating progress as that of Wladimir Ivanow (1886-1970), whose memoirs are now published here for the first time. The breakthrough in modern Ismaili studies occurred mainly as a result of the recovery and study of a large number of texts relating to the field, which had not been available to the earlier generations of orientalists. The Persian and Arabic Ismaili manuscripts, many edited and published by Ivanow, reflect a rich diversity of intellectual and literary traditions. Ivanow left his native Russia soon after the October Revolution of 1917 and settled in India where he was formally commissioned in 1931 by Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III, the 48th Imam of the Nizari Ismailis, to investigate the history and teachings of the Ismailis. Henceforth, Ivanow began the systematic recovery and study of texts from this tradition of Shi'i Islam, discovered in India, the Middle East and Central Asia, amongst other regions.He also played a key role in the establishment of the Ismaili Society - the first research institution of its kind with a major collection of Ismaili manuscripts. Ivanow made these manuscripts available to other scholars, thereby contributing to further progress in the field. Ivanow completed his memoirs, entitled Fifty Years in the East, in 1968, shortly before his death. This work, originally written in Russian, is comprised of an autobiography and vivid accounts from his travels. These convey his ethnologist's interest in 'the archaeology of the way of life' and profound curiosity for regional customs and languages. The memoirs, written in Tehran during Ivanow's final years, have now been edited with substantial annotations by Farhad Daftary. They reveal for the first time the circumstances under which modern Ismaili studies were initiated and an eyewitness account of several regions during the early decades of the twentieth century before the rapid onset of modernisation.

I.B.Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili StudiesThe world's 200 million Shi'i Muslims express their faith in a multiplicity of ways, united by reverence for the ahl al-bayt, the family of the Prophet. In embracing a pluralistic ethic, fourteen centuries of Shi'i Islam have given rise to diverse traditions and practices across varied geographic and cultural landscapes. The Shi'i World is a comprehensive work authored by leading scholars from assorted disciplines, to provide a better understanding of how Shi'i communities view themselves and articulate their teachings. The topics range from Shi'i Islam's historical and conceptual foundations, formative figures and intellectual, legal and moral traditions, to its devotional practices, art and architecture, literature, music and cinema, as well as expressions and experiences of modernity. The book thus provides a panoramic perspective of the richly textured narratives that have shaped the social and moral universe of Shi'i Muslims around the globe.This fourth volume in the Muslim Heritage Series will appeal to specialists and general readers alike, as a timely resource on the prevailing complexities not only of the 'Muslim world', but also of the dynamic Shi'i diasporas of Europe and North America.

I.B.Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili StudiesThe Fatimids ruled much of the Mediterranean world for over two centuries. From the conquest of Qayrawan in 909 to defeat at the hands of Saladin in 1171, the Fatimid caliphate governed a vast area stretching, at its peak, from the Red Sea in the East to the Atlantic Ocean in the West. Their leaders - the Ismaili Shi`i Imam-caliphs - were distinctive in largely pursuing a policy of tolerance towards the religious and ethnic communities of their realm, and they embraced diverse approaches to the practicalities of administering a vast empire. Such methods of negotiating government and diversity created a lasting pluralistic legacy.The present volume, edited by Farhad Daftary and Shainool Jiwa, brings together a series of original contributions from a number of leading authorities in the field. Based on analyses of primary sources, the chapters shed fresh light on the impact of Fatimid rule. The book presents little explored aspects of state-society relations such as the Fatimid model of the vizierate, Sunni legal responses to Fatimid observance, and the role of women in prayer. Highlighting the distinctive nature of the Fatimid empire and its legacy, this book will be of special interest to researchers in mediaeval Islamic history and thought.

A comprehensive treatment of Ismaili medieval history in its entirety. It will have great appeal to all scholars of medieval Islam. Farhad Daftary is one of the world's leading authorities on Ismaili history and literature. This important book, by an internationally acknowledged expert in Ismaili studies, introduces Ismaili history and thought in medieval times. Discussing the different phases in Ismaili history, it describes both the early Ismailis as well as the contributions of the later Ismailis to Islamic culture. A number of chapters deal with key Ismaili individuals such as Hasan-i Sabbah. Other chapters contextualise the Ismailis within the early Muslim societies, in addition to investigating the Ismaili-Crusader relations and the resulting legends on the Ismaili secret practices. Over the course of the work, it becomes clear that Ismaili historiography, and the perception of the Ismailis by others (in both Muslim and Christian milieus), have had a fascinating evolution. During their long history the Ismailis have often been accused of various heretical teachings and practices and - at the same time - a multitude of myths and misconceptions have ciculated about them.Farhad Daftary here separates myth from fact, propaganda from actuality, in a work characterised by his customary mastery of the sources and literature.

The Ismailis have enjoyed a long, eventful and complex history dating back to the 8th century CE and originating in the Shi'i tradition of Islam. During the medieval period, Ismailis of different regions - especially in central Asia, south Asia, Iran and Syria - developed and elaborated their own distinctive literary and intellectual traditions, which have made an outstanding contribution to the culture of Islam as a whole. At the same time, the Ismailis in the Middle Ages split into two main groups who followed different spiritual leaders. The bulk of the Ismailis came to have a line of imams now represented by the Aga Khans, while a smaller group - known in south Asia as the Bohras - developed their own type of leadership.This collection is the first scholarly attempt to survey the modern history of both Ismaili groupings since the middle of the 19th century. It covers a variety of topical issues and themes, such as the modernising policies of the Aga Khans, and also includes original studies of regional developments in Ismaili communities worldwide.The contributors focus too on how the Ismailis as a religious community have responded to the twin challenges of modernity and emigration to the West. "A Modern History of the Ismailis" will be welcomed as the most complete assessment yet published of the recent trajectory of this fascinating and influential Shi'i community.

Ismaili Studies represents one of the most recent fields of Islamic Studies. Much new research has taken place in this field as a result of the recovery of a large number of Ismaili texts. Ismaili Literature contains a complete listing of the sources and secondary studies, including theses, written by Ismailis or about them in all major Islamic and European languages. It also contains chapters surveying Ismaili history and developments in modern Ismaili Studies.

For hundreds of years Westerners have been fascinated by stories of the Assassins, their mysterious leader and their remote mountain stronghold at Alamut in Northern Iran. The legends first emerged in the 12th and 13th centuries, when Crusaders in Syria came into contact with the Nazari Isma'ilis, one of the communities of Shi'ite Islam who, at the behest of their leader Hassan Sabaa (mythologized as the "Old Man of the Mountain"), engaged in dangerous missions to kill their enemies. Elaborated over the years, the tales culminated in Marco Polo's claim that the "Old Man" controlled the behaviour of his self-sacrificing devotees through the use of hashish and a secret garden of paradise. So influential were these tales that the word "assassin" entered European languages as a common noun meaning "murderer". Daftary traces the origins and early development of the legends - as well as investigating the historical context in which they were fabricated and transmitted. As such, this book reveals an extraordinary programme of propaganda rooted in the medieval Muslim world and medieval Europe's ignorance of this world.This book also provides the first English translation of French orientalist Silvestre de Sacy's famous 19th-century "Memoire" on the Assassins.

For hundreds of years Westerners have been fascinated by stories of the Assassins, their mysterious leader and their remote mountain stronghold at Alamut in Northern Iran. The legends first emerged in the 12th and 13th centuries, when Crusaders in Syria came into contact with the Nazari Isma'ilis, one of the communities of Shi'ite Islam who, at the behest of their leader Hassan Sabaa (mythologized as the "Old Man of the Mountain"), engaged in dangerous missions to kill their enemies. Elaborated over the years, the tales culminated in Marco Polo's claim that the "Old Man" controlled the behaviour of his self-sacrificing devotees through the use of hashish and a secret garden of paradise. So influential were these tales that the word "assassin" entered European languages as a common noun meaning "murderer". Daftary traces the origins and early development of the legends - as well as investigating the historical context in which they were fabricated and transmitted. As such, this book reveals an extraordinary programme of propaganda rooted in the medieval Muslim world and medieval Europe's ignorance of this world.This book also provides the first English translation of French orientalist Silvestre de Sacy's famous 19th-century "Memoir" on the Assassins.

The relationship between the workings of memory and the formation of culture is intriguingly close in the world of medieval Islam. In this book, distinguished contributors explore broad-ranging themes relating to memory, memorisation, memorialising or commemorating in a variety of historical, legal, literary and architectural contexts. Abbas Amanat, Irene Bierman, Elton Daniel, George Makdisi, Andrew Newman, Roy Mottahedeh, Ismail K. Poonawala and Paul E. Walker examine lists and maps as memory aids, the transmission of knowledge and traditions from medieval to early-modern times, the application of medieval notions of law and statecraft and the commemoration of individuals, civilisations and dynasties in historical and literary works, on coinage and in monumental forms. This is a fascinatingly original perspective on a topic which will engage scholars of Islamic history and sociology, as well as cultural history and the history of ideas.

Examines Cairo from the first century AH/seventh century AD onwards, considering the relationships between the physical layout of the city and its historic buildings, its economy, and its social, cultural, and religious life.