Murugan Ramalingam, University of Strasbourg, France and Tohoku University, Japan. Ziyad Haidar, Inha University, South Korea and University of Utah, USA. Seeram Ramakrishna, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Hisatoshi Kobayashi, National Institute for Materials Science, Japan. Youssef Haikel, University of Strasbourg, France.

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• Preface xiii 1. Protocols for Biomaterial Scaffold Fabrication 1Azadeh Seidi and Murugan Ramalingam1.1 Introduction 11.2 Scaffolding Materials 41.3 Techniques for Biomaterial Scaffolds Fabrication 71.4 Summary 19Acknowledgements 202. Ceramic Scaffolds, Current Issues and Future Trends 25Seyed-Iman Roohani-Esfahani S. I. and Hala Zreiqat H.2.1 Introduction 252.2 Essential Properties and Current Problems of Ceramic Scaffolds 272.3 Approaches to Overcome Ceramic Scaffolds Issues for the Next Generation of Scaffolds 302.4 Silk – a Bioactive Material 35Acknowledgements 36References 363. Preparation of Porous Scaffolds from Ice Particulate Templates for Tissue Engineering 47Guoping Chen and Naoki Kawazoe3.1 Introduction 483.2 Preparation of Porous Scaffolds Using Ice Particulates as Porogens 483.3 Preparation of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds Using Embossed Ice Particulate Templates 513.4 Application of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds in Three-dimensional Cell Culture 563.5 Application of Funnel-like Collagen Sponges in Cartilage Tissue Engineering 573.6 Summary 60References 604. Fabrication of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 63Naznin Sultana and Min Wang4.1 Introduction 644.2 Materials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 654.3 Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 684.4 Fabrication of Pure Polymer Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 704.5 Fabrication of Polymer Blend Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 784.6 Fabrication of Nanocomposite Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 804.7 Surface Modification for PHBV-based Scaffolds 854.8 Concluding Remarks 87Acknowledgments 87References 885. Electrospun Nanofiber and Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering 91Susan Liao, Seeram Ramakrishna and Murugan Ramalingam5.1 Introduction 925.2 Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering 935.3 Nanofibrous Scaffolds 975.4 Stem Cells: A Potential Tool for Tissue Engineering 1095.5 Prospects 114Acknowledgement 116References 1166. Materials at the Interface Tissue-implant 121Antonio Peramo6.1 Introduction 1226.2 Description of the Tissue-device Interface 1236.3 Expected Function of the Materials at the Interface and their Evaluation and Selection 1256.4 Experimental Techniques for the Tissue-implant Interface 1326.5 Conclusion 135References 1357. Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Regeneration 139Kalpana S. Katti, Avinash A. Ambre, and Dinesh R. Katti7.1 Introduction 1397.2 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) 1447.3 Understanding the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) 1497.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Culture 1527.5 Characterization of MSCs 1557.6 MSCs in Bone Remodeling, Fracture Repair and their Use in Bone Tissue Engineering Applications 1587.7 Influence of External Stimuli on MSC Behavior 1597.8 Perspectives on Future of hMSCs in Tissue Engineering 161References 1628. Endochondral Bone Tissue Engineering 167Sanne K. Both, Fang Yang, and John A. Jansen8.1 Introduction 1678.2 Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells 1718.3 Scaffolds 1758.4 Summary 181References 1829. Principles, Applications, and Technology of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 185Mona K. Marei, Mohamed A. Alkhodary, Rania M. Elbackly, Samer H. Zaky, Admed M. Eweida, Muhammad A. Gad, Maglaa Abdel-Wahed and Yasser M. Kahad9.1 Introduction 1869.2 Road Map for the Application of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine for Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 1979.3 Stem Cell-based Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2019.4 Biomaterial-based Therapy in Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2089.5 Principles of Imaging in Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 2149.6 Current Clinical Application and Future Direction in the Field of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2229.7 Future Prospects 2279.8 Economics and Marketing 2279.9 Conclusions 228References 22810. Functionally-Graded Biomimetic Vascular Grafts for Enhanced Tissue Regeneration and Bio-integration 237Vinoy Thomas and Yogesh K. Vohra10.1 Introduction 23810.2 Approaches in Vascular Tissue Engineering 23910.3 Nanostructured Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering 24110.4 Functionally-Graded Tubular Scaffolds 24910.5 Summary and Future Outlook 268Acknowledgements 269List of Abbreviations Used 270References 27111. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors in Tissue Engineering: Challenges and Prospects for Therapeutic Angiogenesis 277Ekaterina S. Lifirsu, Murugan Ramalingam, and Ziyad S. Haidar11.1 Introduction 27811.2 VEGF and Angiogenesis 27811.3 VEGF Family 27911.4 VEGF Therapy 28111.5 VEGF Delivery Systems 28211.6 Soft versus hard Tissues 28411.7 Concluding Remarks 289References 292

Murugan Ramalingam, University of Strasbourg, France and Tohoku University, Japan. Ziyad Haidar, Inha University, South Korea and University of Utah, USA. Seeram Ramakrishna, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Hisatoshi Kobayashi, National Institute for Materials Science, Japan. Youssef Haikel, University of Strasbourg, France.

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• Preface xiii 1. Protocols for Biomaterial Scaffold Fabrication 1Azadeh Seidi and Murugan Ramalingam1.1 Introduction 11.2 Scaffolding Materials 41.3 Techniques for Biomaterial Scaffolds Fabrication 71.4 Summary 19Acknowledgements 202. Ceramic Scaffolds, Current Issues and Future Trends 25Seyed-Iman Roohani-Esfahani S. I. and Hala Zreiqat H.2.1 Introduction 252.2 Essential Properties and Current Problems of Ceramic Scaffolds 272.3 Approaches to Overcome Ceramic Scaffolds Issues for the Next Generation of Scaffolds 302.4 Silk – a Bioactive Material 35Acknowledgements 36References 363. Preparation of Porous Scaffolds from Ice Particulate Templates for Tissue Engineering 47Guoping Chen and Naoki Kawazoe3.1 Introduction 483.2 Preparation of Porous Scaffolds Using Ice Particulates as Porogens 483.3 Preparation of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds Using Embossed Ice Particulate Templates 513.4 Application of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds in Three-dimensional Cell Culture 563.5 Application of Funnel-like Collagen Sponges in Cartilage Tissue Engineering 573.6 Summary 60References 604. Fabrication of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 63Naznin Sultana and Min Wang4.1 Introduction 644.2 Materials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 654.3 Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 684.4 Fabrication of Pure Polymer Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 704.5 Fabrication of Polymer Blend Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 784.6 Fabrication of Nanocomposite Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 804.7 Surface Modification for PHBV-based Scaffolds 854.8 Concluding Remarks 87Acknowledgments 87References 885. Electrospun Nanofiber and Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering 91Susan Liao, Seeram Ramakrishna and Murugan Ramalingam5.1 Introduction 925.2 Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering 935.3 Nanofibrous Scaffolds 975.4 Stem Cells: A Potential Tool for Tissue Engineering 1095.5 Prospects 114Acknowledgement 116References 1166. Materials at the Interface Tissue-implant 121Antonio Peramo6.1 Introduction 1226.2 Description of the Tissue-device Interface 1236.3 Expected Function of the Materials at the Interface and their Evaluation and Selection 1256.4 Experimental Techniques for the Tissue-implant Interface 1326.5 Conclusion 135References 1357. Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Regeneration 139Kalpana S. Katti, Avinash A. Ambre, and Dinesh R. Katti7.1 Introduction 1397.2 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) 1447.3 Understanding the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) 1497.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Culture 1527.5 Characterization of MSCs 1557.6 MSCs in Bone Remodeling, Fracture Repair and their Use in Bone Tissue Engineering Applications 1587.7 Influence of External Stimuli on MSC Behavior 1597.8 Perspectives on Future of hMSCs in Tissue Engineering 161References 1628. Endochondral Bone Tissue Engineering 167Sanne K. Both, Fang Yang, and John A. Jansen8.1 Introduction 1678.2 Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells 1718.3 Scaffolds 1758.4 Summary 181References 1829. Principles, Applications, and Technology of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 185Mona K. Marei, Mohamed A. Alkhodary, Rania M. Elbackly, Samer H. Zaky, Admed M. Eweida, Muhammad A. Gad, Maglaa Abdel-Wahed and Yasser M. Kahad9.1 Introduction 1869.2 Road Map for the Application of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine for Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 1979.3 Stem Cell-based Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2019.4 Biomaterial-based Therapy in Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2089.5 Principles of Imaging in Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 2149.6 Current Clinical Application and Future Direction in the Field of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2229.7 Future Prospects 2279.8 Economics and Marketing 2279.9 Conclusions 228References 22810. Functionally-Graded Biomimetic Vascular Grafts for Enhanced Tissue Regeneration and Bio-integration 237Vinoy Thomas and Yogesh K. Vohra10.1 Introduction 23810.2 Approaches in Vascular Tissue Engineering 23910.3 Nanostructured Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering 24110.4 Functionally-Graded Tubular Scaffolds 24910.5 Summary and Future Outlook 268Acknowledgements 269List of Abbreviations Used 270References 27111. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors in Tissue Engineering: Challenges and Prospects for Therapeutic Angiogenesis 277Ekaterina S. Lifirsu, Murugan Ramalingam, and Ziyad S. Haidar11.1 Introduction 27811.2 VEGF and Angiogenesis 27811.3 VEGF Family 27911.4 VEGF Therapy 28111.5 VEGF Delivery Systems 28211.6 Soft versus hard Tissues 28411.7 Concluding Remarks 289References 292

Murugan Ramalingam, University of Strasbourg, France and Tohoku University, Japan. Ziyad Haidar, Inha University, South Korea and University of Utah, USA. Seeram Ramakrishna, National University of Singapore, Singapore. Hisatoshi Kobayashi, National Institute for Materials Science, Japan. Youssef Haikel, University of Strasbourg, France.

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• Preface xiii 1. Protocols for Biomaterial Scaffold Fabrication 1Azadeh Seidi and Murugan Ramalingam1.1 Introduction 11.2 Scaffolding Materials 41.3 Techniques for Biomaterial Scaffolds Fabrication 71.4 Summary 19Acknowledgements 202. Ceramic Scaffolds, Current Issues and Future Trends 25Seyed-Iman Roohani-Esfahani S. I. and Hala Zreiqat H.2.1 Introduction 252.2 Essential Properties and Current Problems of Ceramic Scaffolds 272.3 Approaches to Overcome Ceramic Scaffolds Issues for the Next Generation of Scaffolds 302.4 Silk – a Bioactive Material 35Acknowledgements 36References 363. Preparation of Porous Scaffolds from Ice Particulate Templates for Tissue Engineering 47Guoping Chen and Naoki Kawazoe3.1 Introduction 483.2 Preparation of Porous Scaffolds Using Ice Particulates as Porogens 483.3 Preparation of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds Using Embossed Ice Particulate Templates 513.4 Application of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds in Three-dimensional Cell Culture 563.5 Application of Funnel-like Collagen Sponges in Cartilage Tissue Engineering 573.6 Summary 60References 604. Fabrication of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 63Naznin Sultana and Min Wang4.1 Introduction 644.2 Materials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 654.3 Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 684.4 Fabrication of Pure Polymer Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 704.5 Fabrication of Polymer Blend Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 784.6 Fabrication of Nanocomposite Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 804.7 Surface Modification for PHBV-based Scaffolds 854.8 Concluding Remarks 87Acknowledgments 87References 885. Electrospun Nanofiber and Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering 91Susan Liao, Seeram Ramakrishna and Murugan Ramalingam5.1 Introduction 925.2 Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering 935.3 Nanofibrous Scaffolds 975.4 Stem Cells: A Potential Tool for Tissue Engineering 1095.5 Prospects 114Acknowledgement 116References 1166. Materials at the Interface Tissue-implant 121Antonio Peramo6.1 Introduction 1226.2 Description of the Tissue-device Interface 1236.3 Expected Function of the Materials at the Interface and their Evaluation and Selection 1256.4 Experimental Techniques for the Tissue-implant Interface 1326.5 Conclusion 135References 1357. Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Regeneration 139Kalpana S. Katti, Avinash A. Ambre, and Dinesh R. Katti7.1 Introduction 1397.2 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) 1447.3 Understanding the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) 1497.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Culture 1527.5 Characterization of MSCs 1557.6 MSCs in Bone Remodeling, Fracture Repair and their Use in Bone Tissue Engineering Applications 1587.7 Influence of External Stimuli on MSC Behavior 1597.8 Perspectives on Future of hMSCs in Tissue Engineering 161References 1628. Endochondral Bone Tissue Engineering 167Sanne K. Both, Fang Yang, and John A. Jansen8.1 Introduction 1678.2 Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells 1718.3 Scaffolds 1758.4 Summary 181References 1829. Principles, Applications, and Technology of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 185Mona K. Marei, Mohamed A. Alkhodary, Rania M. Elbackly, Samer H. Zaky, Admed M. Eweida, Muhammad A. Gad, Maglaa Abdel-Wahed and Yasser M. Kahad9.1 Introduction 1869.2 Road Map for the Application of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine for Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 1979.3 Stem Cell-based Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2019.4 Biomaterial-based Therapy in Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2089.5 Principles of Imaging in Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 2149.6 Current Clinical Application and Future Direction in the Field of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 2229.7 Future Prospects 2279.8 Economics and Marketing 2279.9 Conclusions 228References 22810. Functionally-Graded Biomimetic Vascular Grafts for Enhanced Tissue Regeneration and Bio-integration 237Vinoy Thomas and Yogesh K. Vohra10.1 Introduction 23810.2 Approaches in Vascular Tissue Engineering 23910.3 Nanostructured Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering 24110.4 Functionally-Graded Tubular Scaffolds 24910.5 Summary and Future Outlook 268Acknowledgements 269List of Abbreviations Used 270References 27111. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors in Tissue Engineering: Challenges and Prospects for Therapeutic Angiogenesis 277Ekaterina S. Lifirsu, Murugan Ramalingam, and Ziyad S. Haidar11.1 Introduction 27811.2 VEGF and Angiogenesis 27811.3 VEGF Family 27911.4 VEGF Therapy 28111.5 VEGF Delivery Systems 28211.6 Soft versus hard Tissues 28411.7 Concluding Remarks 289References 292