Organizational Change

Dr. Laurie Lewis is a Professor of Communications at Rutgers University and a Fellow at the Rutgers Center for Organizational Leadership. She is co-editor of Volunteering and Communication and the International Encyclopedia of Organizational Communication and has written numerous academic publications on topics related to organizational change, collaboration, inter-organizational communication, and stakeholder communication. Dr. Lewis has provided consulting and training for organizations including nonprofits, civil society organizations, Fortune 500 companies, and higher education institutions.

• Introduction 1State of the Art 3Weaknesses in Current Approaches to Change Implementation 4A Stakeholder Theory Perspective 7Highlight Box 1: Hershey Builds a Community 9A Communication Perspective 12Cases of Organizational Change 14Ingredients Incorporated 14Spellings Commission on Higher Education 15Conclusion 181 Defining Organizational Change 20The Role of Communication in Triggering Change 21Failure in Change 24What Is Organizational Change? 25Drive‐thru Diffusion 27Communication, Social Pressure, and Diffusion 28Highlight Box 1.1: The Malcolm Baldrige Award 30Implementation 31Understanding Key Terms 32A Complex Model of Innovation, Diffusion, Adoption,and Implementation 34Case Box 1.1: Ingredients Inc. Experiences Overlapping Changes 37Types of Organizational Change 37Complexity of Change Within Organizations 42Interdependence 42Structures 44Politics 46Case Box 1.2: Spellings Commission Political Positions Play a Role 48Conclusion 492 Processes of Communication During Change 53Formal Communication 54Case Box 2.1: Spellings Commission – Responses to Change Announcement 55Informal Communication 55Importance of Communication 56Communication Processes 57Information Dissemination and Uncertainty 58Common Practice Advice for Information Dissemination 62Selecting Channels for Communicating Change 64Case Box 2.2: Ingredients Inc. – Information Dissemination Campaigns 65Informal Information Dissemination 66Case Box 2.3: Spellings Commission – Stakeholders’ Informational Campaign 67Creating Knowledge 68Soliciting Input 69Practice Advice for Seeking Input 70Voice and Empowerment 70Design of Input Solicitation 73Categorizing Approaches to Input Solicitation 76Perspectives of Input Providers 79Stakeholders’ Input Solicitation 81Case Box 2.4: Spellings Stakeholders Solicit Input from Each Other 82Socialization 83Case Box 2.5: Homeless Net Resists Altering Role Schema 87Conclusion 883 A Stakeholder Communication Model of Change 94Stakeholder Theory 95Highlight Box 3.1: HUD As a Definitive Stakeholder for Agencies Serving Homeless Populations 99Case Box 3.1: Homeless Net Implementation of Listserv Increases Awareness of Stakeholders 100Complicating Stakeholder Relationships 102Multiple Stakeholder Identities 104Highlight Box 3.2: IT Reskilling Case Study – How Stakeholder Groups View Change Differently 107Stakeholder Interactions 108Highlight Box 3.3: Upton Sinclair Sets off Stakeholder Advocacy to Clean up Meat Packing Factories 109Roles Stakeholders Play in Change 110Opinion Leaders 110Connectors 111Counselors 112Journalists 114Highlight Box 3.4: Examples of “Alt” US Government 115Stakeholder Model of Implementation of Change 115Outcomes 116Stakeholders’ Concerns, Assessments, and Interactions 117Communication Strategies 117Antecedents 119Model Overview 119Conclusion 1204 Outcomes of Change Processes 126The Importance of Goals 127Assessing Change Outcomes 128Timing of Assessing Outcomes 129Assessing Outcomes from Multiple Perspectives 129Difficulty of Metrics of Success 131Case Box 4.1: Homeless Net Struggles to Assess a Large Mission 132Attribution Errors 133Documenting Failure 135Highlight Box 4.1: March of Dimes Succeeds to the Brink of Organizational Death 136Assessing Change Outcomes 137Fidelity and Uniformity 138Organizational Goals 141Authenticity 141Assessing Results of Change 143Case Box 4.2: Ingredients Inc. – Foreknowledge and Change Burnout 145Causes for Implementation Failures and Successes 146Conclusion 1505 Communication Approaches and Strategies 156Uniformity, Fidelity, and Models of Implementation 159Communication Strategy Dimensions 162Dissemination/Soliciting Input 162Highlight Box 5.1: Gap’s Campaign for Cultural Transformation 163Highlight Box 5.2: CEO of Lego Transforms Co.Through Widespread Empowerment Strategy 165Case Box 5.1: Spellings Stakeholders Solicit Input and Disseminate Information 167Sidedness 168Case Box 5.2: One‐ and Two‐Sided Messages from Spellings Stakeholders 171Reluctance to Acknowledge Negatives 172Highlight Box 5.3: Companies Use Euphemisms to Avoid Saying “Layoffs” 173Gain or Loss Frame 175Targeted or Blanket Messages 177Case Box 5.3: Memo to Ingredients Inc. 178Case Box 5.4: Official Statement by the Department of Education on Spellings Commission Report 179Discrepancy and Efficacy 181Channels for Communicating 183Conclusion 1856 Power and Resistance 191Power During Organizational Change 192Case Box 6.1: Spellings Commission’s Latent Power Recognized 195Bases of Power 196Case Box 6.2: Homeless Net Recognizes Expertise Power of Implementers 197Meaning‐Centered Approach to Power 198Balances of Power 199Highlight Box 6.1: JAR Technologies Experiences Concertive Control 202Resistance During Change 202Thinking Patterns that Explain Managers’ “Resistance” Focus 203Highlight Box 6.2: Defensive Routines in Implementing Strategy 205What Is Resistance? 205Forms of Resistance 208Highlight Box 6.3: Mice Don’t Overanalyze Change 210Dispositional Resistance 216Value of Resistance 218The Facebook Example 219Highlight Box 6.4: Moving Cheese Might Require Thoughtful Consideration 221Conclusion 2217 Antecedents to Strategies, Assessments,and Interactions 227Institutional Factors 229Implementers’ Perceptions of Change Context 232Assessing Stakeholders and Stakeholder Values 232Case Box 7.1: Reactions of Powerful Stakeholders 235Assessing Needs for Consensus‐Building 236Assessing Needs for Efficiency 237Assessing Individual and Organizational Change History and Readiness 238Case Box 7.2: History as Prologue? Spellings Report Triggers Comparisons to NCLB 239Assessing Goals for Change 240Case Box 7.3: Flip‐Flopping on Anticipation of Change 241Stakeholders’ Perceptions of Change Context 242Case Box 7.4: Discrepancy Messages Overplayed 244Case Box 7.5: Supporting Stakeholders through Change 246Conclusion 2488 Stakeholder Interactions: Storying and Framing 253Creating Stories and Storylines That Make Sense 255Highlight Box 8.1: How We Make Stories 255Case Box 8.1: Threads of Merger Stories 257Highlight Box 8.2: Story of Bad Treatment 258Making Stories 258Case Box 8.2: Varying Stories About What Was Announced as Change 259Framing 260Frames Tell Stories from a Perspective 260Interactional Frames 261Contesting and Resisting Stories and Frames 262Highlight Box 8.3: Attempts at Framing 263“Managing Meaning” 264How Non‐Managerial Stakeholders “Manage Meaning” 265Stories and Frames Create, Maintain, and Resolve Concerns 265Concerns about Process or Substance of Change 268Creating and Resolving Alliances, Rivalries, and Schisms 270Highlight Box 8.4: Terse Telling 271Highlight Box 8.5: “We Don’t Want It Either” 272Highlight Box 8.6: Reframing and Resistance 273Which Stories and Frames Matter? 274Highlight Box 8.7: Social Sensemaking Sets Up Material Disappointment 276Conclusion 2779 Applying the Model in Practice 281Activity Tracks 282Managing Meaning 283Managing Networks 283Managing Practice 284Keeping Track of the “Tracks” 284Stakeholders Must Manage Activity Tracks 285Preview of Chapter and Case Introduction 286Tools for Managing Activity Tracks 286Monitoring and Articulating Goals 286Highlight Box 9.1: Virtual Problems 287Developing Strategic Messages and Strategic Communication Plan 291Analysis of Input 294Influencing Implementation Climate 297Myths about Implementing Planned Change 299Conclusion 302Glossary 304Index 315