Roji Balaji Waghmare is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India. She has worked extensively on different drying techniques of food products, including freeze-drying. Manoj Kumar is a Scientist in the Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division at the Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, India. His research focuses on the extraction and functional characterization of bioactive compounds from plant-based matrices. Parmjit Singh Panesar is a Professor in the Food Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Food Engineering and Technology, as well as Dean of Planning and Development, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, India. His research focuses on agro-industry bioproducts as incorporated into the production of high-value food products.

• List of Contributors xiiiPreface xviAcknowledgments xviii1 Freeze- Drying: Basic Principles and Processes 1Roji Balaji Waghmare, Manoj Kumar, and Parmjit Singh Panesar1.1 Introduction 11.2 Principle of FD Process 31.2.1 Freezing of Raw Material 41.2.2 Primary Drying – Sublimation 41.2.3 Second Drying – Desorption 51.3 Basic Components of a Typical Freeze- Dryer System 51.4 Types of FD Processes 71.4.1 Vacuum FD 71.4.2 Atmospheric FD 81.4.3 Spray FD 91.5 Characterization of FD Samples 111.5.1 Color 111.5.2 Moisture 121.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 121.5.4 Thermal Analysis 131.5.5 Rehydration Characteristics 141.6 Applications of FD in Food Processing 141.6.1 Fresh Produce 151.6.2 Animal Products 161.6.3 Dairy Products 161.6.4 Miscellaneous Applications 171.7 Advantages of FD 171.8 Limitations of FD 231.9 Commercial Status 231.9.1 Technological Applications in Food 231.10 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 24References 242 Mathematical Modeling of Freeze- Drying Process 31Kyuya Nakagawa2.1 Introduction 312.2 Principle of Freeze- Dryer 322.2.1 Vacuum Freeze- Drying 322.2.2 Atmospheric Freeze- Drying 342.2.3 Water Vapor Transfer in Freeze- Dryer 362.3 Mathematical Model for Freezing 392.3.1 Thermal Balance during Freezing 392.3.2 Examples of Simulation Results 412.4 Mathematical Expression of the Progress of Freeze- Drying 472.4.1 Primary Drying 472.4.2 Secondary Drying 502.4.3 Practical Approach for Modeling of Freeze- Drying 512.5 One- Dimensional Model (r P –k V Model) 522.6 Three- Dimensional Model (K cc Model) 552.6.1 Case Classification of Freeze- Drying under Radiative Heat 552.6.2 Radiative Heat to Product 562.6.3 Radiative Heat to Tray 572.6.4 Conductive Heat Transfer in the Frozen and Dried Layers 582.6.5 Three- Dimensional Model (K cc Model) – Water Vapor Transfer 602.6.6 Parameter Estimation by Ice Sublimation Test 622.6.7 Estimation of Essential Surface Area 632.6.8 Simulation Result Example 642.7 Conclusion 66References 683 Freeze Drying of Fruits and Vegetables 73Yogesh Kumar and Rajat Suhag3.1 Introduction 733.2 Physical Characteristics of Freeze- Dried Fruits and Vegetables 743.2.1 Color 743.2.2 Shrinkage 753.2.3 Rehydration Capacity 773.2.4 Microstructure 783.3 Biochemical Characteristics of Freeze- dried Fruits and Vegetables 803.3.1 Antioxidant Activity 803.3.2 Polyphenols 823.3.3 Ascorbic Acid 833.4 Freeze Drying for Encapsulation 893.5 Applications of Freeze- dried Fruits and Vegetables 943.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Freeze Drying 973.7 Conclusion 98References 984 Freeze- Drying of Meat and Seafood Products 105Rubén Agregán, Noemí Echegaray, Paulo E.S. Munekata, Manoj Kumar, Ruben Dominguez, Mirian Pateiro, and Jose M. Lorenzo4.1 Introduction 1054.2 Principles of Freeze- Drying Technology 1074.3 Effect of Freeze- Drying on the Sensory Attributes of Meat and Seafood Products 1084.3.1 The Challenge of Imitating Fresh Meat 1094.3.2 The High Opportunities of Freeze- Drying in Seafood 1114.4 Stability of Freeze- Dried Meat and Seafood Products 1144.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages in the Preservation of Meat by Freeze- Drying 1164.4.2 Suitability of Freeze- Drying to Stabilize Seafood Products 1174.5 Conclusions 120Acknowledgments 120References 1205 Freeze- Drying of Dairy Products 127Suchismita Roy and Gunvantsinh Rathod5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Application of Freeze- Drying in Different Dairy Products/ Ingredients 1285.2.1 Milk 1285.2.2 Cheese 1295.2.3 Yogurt 1295.2.3.1 Rehydration of Freeze- Dried Yogurt 1305.3 Application of Freeze- Drying of Other Dairy Products 1305.3.1 Lactic Acid and Other Cultures 1305.3.1.1 Different Cryoprotectants Used During Freeze- Drying 1345.3.2 Application of Freeze- Drying on Colostrum 1345.3.3 Application of Freeze- Drying on Lactoferrin 1355.4 Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1 Parameter of Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1.1 Several Stages Are Involved in Atomizing the Product During Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1.2 Freeze- Drying 1385.5 Advanced Freeze- Drying Methods 1395.5.1 Infrared Freeze- Drying 1395.5.2 High- Pressure Freeze- Drying 1425.5.3 Microwave Freeze- Drying (MWFD) 1425.6 Conclusion 143References 1446 Freeze- Drying of Probiotics for the Incorporation in Functional Foods: Drying Process, Viability, and Powder Properties 153Yasemin Ş. Küçükata, Hatice E. Kırtıl, and Ertan Ermiş6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Functional Foods 1546.3 Cultivation and FD of Probiotics 1576.4 Protection of Probiotics During FD 1596.5 Stability and Viability Assessment After FD 1616.5.1 Factors Affecting Survival and Stability 1626.5.2 Protective Agents to Improve Viability 1636.6 Properties of Freeze- Dried Probiotic Powders 1656.6.1 Comparison of Spray- Dried and Freeze- Dried Probiotic Powders 1676.7 Rehydration of Freeze- Dried Probiotics 1696.8 Conclusion and Future Trends 170References 1707 Freeze- Drying Effect on Nutrients and Their Stability 179Yogesh Gat and Papiha Gawande7.1 Introduction 1797.1.1 Food Quality Changes During Drying of Food 1807.1.2 Freezing Process 1817.1.3 Combined Application of Different Freeze- Drying Methods 1827.1.3.1 Microwave- assisted Freeze Drying (MD- FD) 1837.1.3.2 Foam- mat Freeze Drying (FM- FD) 1837.1.3.3 Far- infrared Radiation- assisted Freeze Drying (FIR- FD) 1837.2 Vitamin 1837.3 Minerals 1897.3.1 Microminerals 1897.3.2 Macro- minerals 1907.4 Bioactive Compounds 1917.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 1947.4.2 Anthocyanin 1967.4.3 Carotenoids 1967.5 Future Perspective 1977.6 Conclusion 198References 1988 Packaging of Freeze- Dried Products 203Tanuva Das, Donald Lyngdoh Nonglait, Devraj Rajput, and Shalini S. Arya8.1 Introduction 2038.2 History of Freeze- Dried Foods 2058.3 Industrial Process of Freeze Drying 2058.3.1 Pre- Treatment Methods of Various Foods Before Freeze- Drying 2078.3.1.1 Blanching 2078.3.1.2 Osmotic Dehydration (OD) 2088.3.1.3 Pulsed- Electric Field (PEF) 2088.3.1.4 Ultrasound (US) 2098.4 Need for Good Packaging for Freeze- Dried Food Products 2098.4.1 Microbial Quality 2098.4.2 Chemical Quality 2108.4.3 Nutritional Quality 2108.4.4 Influence of Storage Quality 2118.5 Selection of Packaging Material 2118.5.1 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 2118.5.2 Gas Transmission Rate 2118.5.3 Tensile Strength and Elongation 2118.5.4 Tear Strength 2128.5.5 Heat Seal Strength 2128.5.6 Performance Properties 2128.6 Types of Packaging for Freeze- Dried Foods 2138.6.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 2138.6.2 Flexible Packaging 2158.6.3 Shrink Film 2168.6.4 Cardboard Packaging 2168.6.5 Wax- Coated Cardboard 2168.6.6 Edible Films 2168.6.7 Cans and Glass Jars 2178.7 Quality Consideration During Packaging 2188.8 Case Studies of the Packaging of Freeze- Dried Food Products 2198.8.1 Packaging of Strawberries 2198.8.2 Packaging of Sour Cherries 2198.8.2.1 Packaging of Accelerated Freeze- Dried Fish Products 2198.9 Market Scenario 2208.9.1 Asia- Pacific 2208.9.2 European Market 2208.9.3 Freeze- Dried Food Market: Recent Developments 2218.10 Sustainability Aspects 2228.11 Safety Aspects of Freeze- Dried Product Packaging 2228.12 Principal Instrumental Techniques Employed for Packaging Controls 2248.12.1 Spectrophotometry 2248.12.2 Thermal Analysis Techniques 2248.12.3 Gas Transmission Analysis 2248.13 Conclusion and Future Scope 224References 2259 Advances in Freeze Drying to Improve Efficiency and Maintain Quality of Dehydrated Fruit and Vegetable Products 229Swati Sharma, Kalyan Barman, Hare Krishna, Surya N. Chaurasia, and Arun S. Mujumdar9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Challenges in Freeze Drying 2319.2.1 Enhancement of Drying Kinetics 2319.2.2 Energy Intensity Reduction 2319.2.3 Scale- Up and Technical Transfer 2329.3 Novel Freeze Drying Systems 2339.3.1 Infrared- Assisted Freeze Drying 2339.3.2 Microwave- Assisted Freeze Drying 2349.3.3 Ultrasound- Assisted Freeze Drying 2389.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 248References 24810 Commercial Applications of Freeze Drying in Food Processing 255Shiv Kumar, Rahul Mehra, Mouandhelmamou Hassani, Anuradha Mishra, and Arun Kumar Pandey10.1 Introduction 25510.2 Commercial Applications of Freeze- Dried Products 25710.2.1 Food Industry 25710.2.2 Dairy Industry 25910.2.3 Other Industry 25910.3 Cost Analysis of Freeze- Dried Food Products 26010.4 Industries Freeze- Drying Operation 26110.4.1 Pretreatments 26110.4.2 Freezing 26110.4.3 Primary Drying 26310.4.4 Secondary Drying 26410.4.5 Factors Affecting the Quality and Uniformity of Freeze- Dried Products 26510.5 Industrial Freeze- Drying Device 26710.5.1 Air Blast Freezer 26710.5.2 Fluidized Bed Freezers 26810.5.3 Contact Freezer 26810.5.4 Immersion Freezer 26910.5.5 Plate Freezer 26910.5.6 Cryogenic Freezers 26910.6 Future Prospects 27010.7 Conclusions 271References 271Index 279

Roji Balaji Waghmare is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India. She has worked extensively on different drying techniques of food products, including freeze-drying. Manoj Kumar is a Scientist in the Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division at the Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, India. His research focuses on the extraction and functional characterization of bioactive compounds from plant-based matrices. Parmjit Singh Panesar is a Professor in the Food Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Food Engineering and Technology, as well as Dean of Planning and Development, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, India. His research focuses on agro-industry bioproducts as incorporated into the production of high-value food products.

• List of Contributors xiiiPreface xviAcknowledgments xviii1 Freeze- Drying: Basic Principles and Processes 1Roji Balaji Waghmare, Manoj Kumar, and Parmjit Singh Panesar1.1 Introduction 11.2 Principle of FD Process 31.2.1 Freezing of Raw Material 41.2.2 Primary Drying – Sublimation 41.2.3 Second Drying – Desorption 51.3 Basic Components of a Typical Freeze- Dryer System 51.4 Types of FD Processes 71.4.1 Vacuum FD 71.4.2 Atmospheric FD 81.4.3 Spray FD 91.5 Characterization of FD Samples 111.5.1 Color 111.5.2 Moisture 121.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 121.5.4 Thermal Analysis 131.5.5 Rehydration Characteristics 141.6 Applications of FD in Food Processing 141.6.1 Fresh Produce 151.6.2 Animal Products 161.6.3 Dairy Products 161.6.4 Miscellaneous Applications 171.7 Advantages of FD 171.8 Limitations of FD 231.9 Commercial Status 231.9.1 Technological Applications in Food 231.10 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 24References 242 Mathematical Modeling of Freeze- Drying Process 31Kyuya Nakagawa2.1 Introduction 312.2 Principle of Freeze- Dryer 322.2.1 Vacuum Freeze- Drying 322.2.2 Atmospheric Freeze- Drying 342.2.3 Water Vapor Transfer in Freeze- Dryer 362.3 Mathematical Model for Freezing 392.3.1 Thermal Balance during Freezing 392.3.2 Examples of Simulation Results 412.4 Mathematical Expression of the Progress of Freeze- Drying 472.4.1 Primary Drying 472.4.2 Secondary Drying 502.4.3 Practical Approach for Modeling of Freeze- Drying 512.5 One- Dimensional Model (r P –k V Model) 522.6 Three- Dimensional Model (K cc Model) 552.6.1 Case Classification of Freeze- Drying under Radiative Heat 552.6.2 Radiative Heat to Product 562.6.3 Radiative Heat to Tray 572.6.4 Conductive Heat Transfer in the Frozen and Dried Layers 582.6.5 Three- Dimensional Model (K cc Model) – Water Vapor Transfer 602.6.6 Parameter Estimation by Ice Sublimation Test 622.6.7 Estimation of Essential Surface Area 632.6.8 Simulation Result Example 642.7 Conclusion 66References 683 Freeze Drying of Fruits and Vegetables 73Yogesh Kumar and Rajat Suhag3.1 Introduction 733.2 Physical Characteristics of Freeze- Dried Fruits and Vegetables 743.2.1 Color 743.2.2 Shrinkage 753.2.3 Rehydration Capacity 773.2.4 Microstructure 783.3 Biochemical Characteristics of Freeze- dried Fruits and Vegetables 803.3.1 Antioxidant Activity 803.3.2 Polyphenols 823.3.3 Ascorbic Acid 833.4 Freeze Drying for Encapsulation 893.5 Applications of Freeze- dried Fruits and Vegetables 943.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Freeze Drying 973.7 Conclusion 98References 984 Freeze- Drying of Meat and Seafood Products 105Rubén Agregán, Noemí Echegaray, Paulo E.S. Munekata, Manoj Kumar, Ruben Dominguez, Mirian Pateiro, and Jose M. Lorenzo4.1 Introduction 1054.2 Principles of Freeze- Drying Technology 1074.3 Effect of Freeze- Drying on the Sensory Attributes of Meat and Seafood Products 1084.3.1 The Challenge of Imitating Fresh Meat 1094.3.2 The High Opportunities of Freeze- Drying in Seafood 1114.4 Stability of Freeze- Dried Meat and Seafood Products 1144.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages in the Preservation of Meat by Freeze- Drying 1164.4.2 Suitability of Freeze- Drying to Stabilize Seafood Products 1174.5 Conclusions 120Acknowledgments 120References 1205 Freeze- Drying of Dairy Products 127Suchismita Roy and Gunvantsinh Rathod5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Application of Freeze- Drying in Different Dairy Products/ Ingredients 1285.2.1 Milk 1285.2.2 Cheese 1295.2.3 Yogurt 1295.2.3.1 Rehydration of Freeze- Dried Yogurt 1305.3 Application of Freeze- Drying of Other Dairy Products 1305.3.1 Lactic Acid and Other Cultures 1305.3.1.1 Different Cryoprotectants Used During Freeze- Drying 1345.3.2 Application of Freeze- Drying on Colostrum 1345.3.3 Application of Freeze- Drying on Lactoferrin 1355.4 Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1 Parameter of Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1.1 Several Stages Are Involved in Atomizing the Product During Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1.2 Freeze- Drying 1385.5 Advanced Freeze- Drying Methods 1395.5.1 Infrared Freeze- Drying 1395.5.2 High- Pressure Freeze- Drying 1425.5.3 Microwave Freeze- Drying (MWFD) 1425.6 Conclusion 143References 1446 Freeze- Drying of Probiotics for the Incorporation in Functional Foods: Drying Process, Viability, and Powder Properties 153Yasemin Ş. Küçükata, Hatice E. Kırtıl, and Ertan Ermiş6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Functional Foods 1546.3 Cultivation and FD of Probiotics 1576.4 Protection of Probiotics During FD 1596.5 Stability and Viability Assessment After FD 1616.5.1 Factors Affecting Survival and Stability 1626.5.2 Protective Agents to Improve Viability 1636.6 Properties of Freeze- Dried Probiotic Powders 1656.6.1 Comparison of Spray- Dried and Freeze- Dried Probiotic Powders 1676.7 Rehydration of Freeze- Dried Probiotics 1696.8 Conclusion and Future Trends 170References 1707 Freeze- Drying Effect on Nutrients and Their Stability 179Yogesh Gat and Papiha Gawande7.1 Introduction 1797.1.1 Food Quality Changes During Drying of Food 1807.1.2 Freezing Process 1817.1.3 Combined Application of Different Freeze- Drying Methods 1827.1.3.1 Microwave- assisted Freeze Drying (MD- FD) 1837.1.3.2 Foam- mat Freeze Drying (FM- FD) 1837.1.3.3 Far- infrared Radiation- assisted Freeze Drying (FIR- FD) 1837.2 Vitamin 1837.3 Minerals 1897.3.1 Microminerals 1897.3.2 Macro- minerals 1907.4 Bioactive Compounds 1917.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 1947.4.2 Anthocyanin 1967.4.3 Carotenoids 1967.5 Future Perspective 1977.6 Conclusion 198References 1988 Packaging of Freeze- Dried Products 203Tanuva Das, Donald Lyngdoh Nonglait, Devraj Rajput, and Shalini S. Arya8.1 Introduction 2038.2 History of Freeze- Dried Foods 2058.3 Industrial Process of Freeze Drying 2058.3.1 Pre- Treatment Methods of Various Foods Before Freeze- Drying 2078.3.1.1 Blanching 2078.3.1.2 Osmotic Dehydration (OD) 2088.3.1.3 Pulsed- Electric Field (PEF) 2088.3.1.4 Ultrasound (US) 2098.4 Need for Good Packaging for Freeze- Dried Food Products 2098.4.1 Microbial Quality 2098.4.2 Chemical Quality 2108.4.3 Nutritional Quality 2108.4.4 Influence of Storage Quality 2118.5 Selection of Packaging Material 2118.5.1 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 2118.5.2 Gas Transmission Rate 2118.5.3 Tensile Strength and Elongation 2118.5.4 Tear Strength 2128.5.5 Heat Seal Strength 2128.5.6 Performance Properties 2128.6 Types of Packaging for Freeze- Dried Foods 2138.6.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 2138.6.2 Flexible Packaging 2158.6.3 Shrink Film 2168.6.4 Cardboard Packaging 2168.6.5 Wax- Coated Cardboard 2168.6.6 Edible Films 2168.6.7 Cans and Glass Jars 2178.7 Quality Consideration During Packaging 2188.8 Case Studies of the Packaging of Freeze- Dried Food Products 2198.8.1 Packaging of Strawberries 2198.8.2 Packaging of Sour Cherries 2198.8.2.1 Packaging of Accelerated Freeze- Dried Fish Products 2198.9 Market Scenario 2208.9.1 Asia- Pacific 2208.9.2 European Market 2208.9.3 Freeze- Dried Food Market: Recent Developments 2218.10 Sustainability Aspects 2228.11 Safety Aspects of Freeze- Dried Product Packaging 2228.12 Principal Instrumental Techniques Employed for Packaging Controls 2248.12.1 Spectrophotometry 2248.12.2 Thermal Analysis Techniques 2248.12.3 Gas Transmission Analysis 2248.13 Conclusion and Future Scope 224References 2259 Advances in Freeze Drying to Improve Efficiency and Maintain Quality of Dehydrated Fruit and Vegetable Products 229Swati Sharma, Kalyan Barman, Hare Krishna, Surya N. Chaurasia, and Arun S. Mujumdar9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Challenges in Freeze Drying 2319.2.1 Enhancement of Drying Kinetics 2319.2.2 Energy Intensity Reduction 2319.2.3 Scale- Up and Technical Transfer 2329.3 Novel Freeze Drying Systems 2339.3.1 Infrared- Assisted Freeze Drying 2339.3.2 Microwave- Assisted Freeze Drying 2349.3.3 Ultrasound- Assisted Freeze Drying 2389.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 248References 24810 Commercial Applications of Freeze Drying in Food Processing 255Shiv Kumar, Rahul Mehra, Mouandhelmamou Hassani, Anuradha Mishra, and Arun Kumar Pandey10.1 Introduction 25510.2 Commercial Applications of Freeze- Dried Products 25710.2.1 Food Industry 25710.2.2 Dairy Industry 25910.2.3 Other Industry 25910.3 Cost Analysis of Freeze- Dried Food Products 26010.4 Industries Freeze- Drying Operation 26110.4.1 Pretreatments 26110.4.2 Freezing 26110.4.3 Primary Drying 26310.4.4 Secondary Drying 26410.4.5 Factors Affecting the Quality and Uniformity of Freeze- Dried Products 26510.5 Industrial Freeze- Drying Device 26710.5.1 Air Blast Freezer 26710.5.2 Fluidized Bed Freezers 26810.5.3 Contact Freezer 26810.5.4 Immersion Freezer 26910.5.5 Plate Freezer 26910.5.6 Cryogenic Freezers 26910.6 Future Prospects 27010.7 Conclusions 271References 271Index 279

Roji Balaji Waghmare is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India. She has worked extensively on different drying techniques of food products, including freeze-drying. Manoj Kumar is a Scientist in the Chemical and Biochemical Processing Division at the Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai, India. His research focuses on the extraction and functional characterization of bioactive compounds from plant-based matrices. Parmjit Singh Panesar is a Professor in the Food Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Food Engineering and Technology, as well as Dean of Planning and Development, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, India. His research focuses on agro-industry bioproducts as incorporated into the production of high-value food products.

• List of Contributors xiiiPreface xviAcknowledgments xviii1 Freeze- Drying: Basic Principles and Processes 1Roji Balaji Waghmare, Manoj Kumar, and Parmjit Singh Panesar1.1 Introduction 11.2 Principle of FD Process 31.2.1 Freezing of Raw Material 41.2.2 Primary Drying – Sublimation 41.2.3 Second Drying – Desorption 51.3 Basic Components of a Typical Freeze- Dryer System 51.4 Types of FD Processes 71.4.1 Vacuum FD 71.4.2 Atmospheric FD 81.4.3 Spray FD 91.5 Characterization of FD Samples 111.5.1 Color 111.5.2 Moisture 121.5.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 121.5.4 Thermal Analysis 131.5.5 Rehydration Characteristics 141.6 Applications of FD in Food Processing 141.6.1 Fresh Produce 151.6.2 Animal Products 161.6.3 Dairy Products 161.6.4 Miscellaneous Applications 171.7 Advantages of FD 171.8 Limitations of FD 231.9 Commercial Status 231.9.1 Technological Applications in Food 231.10 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 24References 242 Mathematical Modeling of Freeze- Drying Process 31Kyuya Nakagawa2.1 Introduction 312.2 Principle of Freeze- Dryer 322.2.1 Vacuum Freeze- Drying 322.2.2 Atmospheric Freeze- Drying 342.2.3 Water Vapor Transfer in Freeze- Dryer 362.3 Mathematical Model for Freezing 392.3.1 Thermal Balance during Freezing 392.3.2 Examples of Simulation Results 412.4 Mathematical Expression of the Progress of Freeze- Drying 472.4.1 Primary Drying 472.4.2 Secondary Drying 502.4.3 Practical Approach for Modeling of Freeze- Drying 512.5 One- Dimensional Model (r P –k V Model) 522.6 Three- Dimensional Model (K cc Model) 552.6.1 Case Classification of Freeze- Drying under Radiative Heat 552.6.2 Radiative Heat to Product 562.6.3 Radiative Heat to Tray 572.6.4 Conductive Heat Transfer in the Frozen and Dried Layers 582.6.5 Three- Dimensional Model (K cc Model) – Water Vapor Transfer 602.6.6 Parameter Estimation by Ice Sublimation Test 622.6.7 Estimation of Essential Surface Area 632.6.8 Simulation Result Example 642.7 Conclusion 66References 683 Freeze Drying of Fruits and Vegetables 73Yogesh Kumar and Rajat Suhag3.1 Introduction 733.2 Physical Characteristics of Freeze- Dried Fruits and Vegetables 743.2.1 Color 743.2.2 Shrinkage 753.2.3 Rehydration Capacity 773.2.4 Microstructure 783.3 Biochemical Characteristics of Freeze- dried Fruits and Vegetables 803.3.1 Antioxidant Activity 803.3.2 Polyphenols 823.3.3 Ascorbic Acid 833.4 Freeze Drying for Encapsulation 893.5 Applications of Freeze- dried Fruits and Vegetables 943.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Freeze Drying 973.7 Conclusion 98References 984 Freeze- Drying of Meat and Seafood Products 105Rubén Agregán, Noemí Echegaray, Paulo E.S. Munekata, Manoj Kumar, Ruben Dominguez, Mirian Pateiro, and Jose M. Lorenzo4.1 Introduction 1054.2 Principles of Freeze- Drying Technology 1074.3 Effect of Freeze- Drying on the Sensory Attributes of Meat and Seafood Products 1084.3.1 The Challenge of Imitating Fresh Meat 1094.3.2 The High Opportunities of Freeze- Drying in Seafood 1114.4 Stability of Freeze- Dried Meat and Seafood Products 1144.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages in the Preservation of Meat by Freeze- Drying 1164.4.2 Suitability of Freeze- Drying to Stabilize Seafood Products 1174.5 Conclusions 120Acknowledgments 120References 1205 Freeze- Drying of Dairy Products 127Suchismita Roy and Gunvantsinh Rathod5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Application of Freeze- Drying in Different Dairy Products/ Ingredients 1285.2.1 Milk 1285.2.2 Cheese 1295.2.3 Yogurt 1295.2.3.1 Rehydration of Freeze- Dried Yogurt 1305.3 Application of Freeze- Drying of Other Dairy Products 1305.3.1 Lactic Acid and Other Cultures 1305.3.1.1 Different Cryoprotectants Used During Freeze- Drying 1345.3.2 Application of Freeze- Drying on Colostrum 1345.3.3 Application of Freeze- Drying on Lactoferrin 1355.4 Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1 Parameter of Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1.1 Several Stages Are Involved in Atomizing the Product During Spray Freeze- Drying 1375.4.1.2 Freeze- Drying 1385.5 Advanced Freeze- Drying Methods 1395.5.1 Infrared Freeze- Drying 1395.5.2 High- Pressure Freeze- Drying 1425.5.3 Microwave Freeze- Drying (MWFD) 1425.6 Conclusion 143References 1446 Freeze- Drying of Probiotics for the Incorporation in Functional Foods: Drying Process, Viability, and Powder Properties 153Yasemin Ş. Küçükata, Hatice E. Kırtıl, and Ertan Ermiş6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Functional Foods 1546.3 Cultivation and FD of Probiotics 1576.4 Protection of Probiotics During FD 1596.5 Stability and Viability Assessment After FD 1616.5.1 Factors Affecting Survival and Stability 1626.5.2 Protective Agents to Improve Viability 1636.6 Properties of Freeze- Dried Probiotic Powders 1656.6.1 Comparison of Spray- Dried and Freeze- Dried Probiotic Powders 1676.7 Rehydration of Freeze- Dried Probiotics 1696.8 Conclusion and Future Trends 170References 1707 Freeze- Drying Effect on Nutrients and Their Stability 179Yogesh Gat and Papiha Gawande7.1 Introduction 1797.1.1 Food Quality Changes During Drying of Food 1807.1.2 Freezing Process 1817.1.3 Combined Application of Different Freeze- Drying Methods 1827.1.3.1 Microwave- assisted Freeze Drying (MD- FD) 1837.1.3.2 Foam- mat Freeze Drying (FM- FD) 1837.1.3.3 Far- infrared Radiation- assisted Freeze Drying (FIR- FD) 1837.2 Vitamin 1837.3 Minerals 1897.3.1 Microminerals 1897.3.2 Macro- minerals 1907.4 Bioactive Compounds 1917.4.1 Antioxidant Activity 1947.4.2 Anthocyanin 1967.4.3 Carotenoids 1967.5 Future Perspective 1977.6 Conclusion 198References 1988 Packaging of Freeze- Dried Products 203Tanuva Das, Donald Lyngdoh Nonglait, Devraj Rajput, and Shalini S. Arya8.1 Introduction 2038.2 History of Freeze- Dried Foods 2058.3 Industrial Process of Freeze Drying 2058.3.1 Pre- Treatment Methods of Various Foods Before Freeze- Drying 2078.3.1.1 Blanching 2078.3.1.2 Osmotic Dehydration (OD) 2088.3.1.3 Pulsed- Electric Field (PEF) 2088.3.1.4 Ultrasound (US) 2098.4 Need for Good Packaging for Freeze- Dried Food Products 2098.4.1 Microbial Quality 2098.4.2 Chemical Quality 2108.4.3 Nutritional Quality 2108.4.4 Influence of Storage Quality 2118.5 Selection of Packaging Material 2118.5.1 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 2118.5.2 Gas Transmission Rate 2118.5.3 Tensile Strength and Elongation 2118.5.4 Tear Strength 2128.5.5 Heat Seal Strength 2128.5.6 Performance Properties 2128.6 Types of Packaging for Freeze- Dried Foods 2138.6.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 2138.6.2 Flexible Packaging 2158.6.3 Shrink Film 2168.6.4 Cardboard Packaging 2168.6.5 Wax- Coated Cardboard 2168.6.6 Edible Films 2168.6.7 Cans and Glass Jars 2178.7 Quality Consideration During Packaging 2188.8 Case Studies of the Packaging of Freeze- Dried Food Products 2198.8.1 Packaging of Strawberries 2198.8.2 Packaging of Sour Cherries 2198.8.2.1 Packaging of Accelerated Freeze- Dried Fish Products 2198.9 Market Scenario 2208.9.1 Asia- Pacific 2208.9.2 European Market 2208.9.3 Freeze- Dried Food Market: Recent Developments 2218.10 Sustainability Aspects 2228.11 Safety Aspects of Freeze- Dried Product Packaging 2228.12 Principal Instrumental Techniques Employed for Packaging Controls 2248.12.1 Spectrophotometry 2248.12.2 Thermal Analysis Techniques 2248.12.3 Gas Transmission Analysis 2248.13 Conclusion and Future Scope 224References 2259 Advances in Freeze Drying to Improve Efficiency and Maintain Quality of Dehydrated Fruit and Vegetable Products 229Swati Sharma, Kalyan Barman, Hare Krishna, Surya N. Chaurasia, and Arun S. Mujumdar9.1 Introduction 2299.2 Challenges in Freeze Drying 2319.2.1 Enhancement of Drying Kinetics 2319.2.2 Energy Intensity Reduction 2319.2.3 Scale- Up and Technical Transfer 2329.3 Novel Freeze Drying Systems 2339.3.1 Infrared- Assisted Freeze Drying 2339.3.2 Microwave- Assisted Freeze Drying 2349.3.3 Ultrasound- Assisted Freeze Drying 2389.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 248References 24810 Commercial Applications of Freeze Drying in Food Processing 255Shiv Kumar, Rahul Mehra, Mouandhelmamou Hassani, Anuradha Mishra, and Arun Kumar Pandey10.1 Introduction 25510.2 Commercial Applications of Freeze- Dried Products 25710.2.1 Food Industry 25710.2.2 Dairy Industry 25910.2.3 Other Industry 25910.3 Cost Analysis of Freeze- Dried Food Products 26010.4 Industries Freeze- Drying Operation 26110.4.1 Pretreatments 26110.4.2 Freezing 26110.4.3 Primary Drying 26310.4.4 Secondary Drying 26410.4.5 Factors Affecting the Quality and Uniformity of Freeze- Dried Products 26510.5 Industrial Freeze- Drying Device 26710.5.1 Air Blast Freezer 26710.5.2 Fluidized Bed Freezers 26810.5.3 Contact Freezer 26810.5.4 Immersion Freezer 26910.5.5 Plate Freezer 26910.5.6 Cryogenic Freezers 26910.6 Future Prospects 27010.7 Conclusions 271References 271Index 279