Professor Colm O’Donnell, School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland. Dr B.K. Tiwari, Department of Food and Tourism, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK.Dr P.J. Cullen, School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland.Dr Rip G. Rice, RICE International Consulting Enterprises, Sandy Spring, Maryland, USA.

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• Contributors xi 1 Status and Trends of Ozone in Food Processing 1Colm O’Donnell, B.K. Tiwari, P.J. Cullen and Rip G. Rice1.1 Why ozone? 11.2 Drivers of ozone in the food industry 11.2.1 Regulation 11.2.2 Surface cleaning and disinfection 21.2.3 Food safety and shelf life extension 21.2.4 Nutrient and sensory aspects 31.2.5 Consumer and processor acceptability 31.2.6 Technology advances 31.2.7 Environmental impact 41.3 The hurdle concept 41.4 Challenges 51.5 Objective 5References 52 Regulatory and Legislative Issues 7B.K. Tiwari and Rip G. Rice2.1 Introduction 72.2 History of ozone application and regulation 92.3 Ozone regulation 92.3.1 Overview of US regulations 92.3.2 Overview of European regulations 112.3.3 Overview of Canadian regulations 132.3.4 Overview of Australian and New Zealand regulations 152.3.5 Overview of Japanese regulations 152.4 Global harmonisation of food safety regulations 16References 163 Chemical and Physical Properties of Ozone 19Annel K. Greene, Zeynep B. Güzel-Seydim and Atıf Can Seydim3.1 Introduction 193.2 The molecular structure of ozone 193.3 The chemical and physical properties of ozone 203.3.1 The chemical mechanisms of ozonation 223.3.2 Ozone reaction pathways in water 223.4 Ozone action on macromolecules 253.5 Mechanisms of microbial inactivation 263.6 Ozone reactions against virus 283.7 Ozone reaction on biofilms 29Acknowledgments 29References 294 Generation and Control of Ozone 33Cameron Tapp and Rip G. Rice4.1 Introduction 334.2 Ozone generation 334.2.1 Ozone generation by corona discharge (CD) 344.2.2 Ultraviolet (UV) (photochemical) ozone generation 364.3 Feed gas preparation systems 364.3.1 Need for feed gas treatment 364.3.2 Air preparation systems 374.3.3 Oxygen feed gas systems 394.4 Solubility of ozone in water 414.5 Contacting ozone with water: physical means of transferring ozone into water 444.5.1 Venturi injection method 444.5.2 Fine bubble diffuser method 464.6 Measuring and monitoring ozone in water 464.6.1 Colourimetric method 474.6.2 Electronic method – for dissolved ozone 474.6.3 Electronic method – for ORP 484.7 Measuring and monitoring ozone in air 484.7.1 Ozone measurement equipment for food processing plant air 494.8 Ozonation equipment for food storage rooms 504.9 Ozone generator output control 504.10 Some recent novel applications for ozone generation in food processing plants 514.11 Helpful calculations 534.11.1 Gallons per minute 534.11.2 Metric equivalent 53References 535 Ozone in Fruit and Vegetable Processing 55B.K. Tiwari and K. Muthukumarappan5.1 Introduction 555.2 Applications in fruit and vegetable processing 565.2.1 Surface decontamination 565.2.2 Storage in ozone-rich atmospheres 615.2.3 Ozone in fruit and vegetable juice processing 655.3 Efficacy of ozone 655.4 Synergistic effects with ozone 685.5 Effect of ozone on product quality and nutrition 695.5.1 Chemical attributes 695.5.2 Visual quality 705.5.3 Texture 725.5.4 Sensory quality 735.6 Conclusion 74References 746 Ozone in Grain Processing 81V. Lullien-Pellerin6.1 Introduction 816.2 Ozone application in grain storage and effects on grain components 826.2.1 Insect control 826.2.2 Microorganism control 846.2.3 Reduction of toxic chemical levels 866.2.4 Effects of ozone on grain components, metabolism and physiological status 886.3 Effects of ozone on grain processing, flour and product quality 906.4 Industrial applications and scale-up 936.5 Conclusions 95Acknowledgments 96References 967 Ozonation of Hydrocolloids 103Joan M. King, Hee-Jung An, Seung-wook Seo and Alfredo Prudente7.1 Introduction 1037.2 Application of ozone in hydrocolloid processing 1047.2.1 Starch 1047.2.2 Chitosan 1057.2.3 Gelatin 1077.2.4 Other hydrocolloids 1087.3 Effects of ozone on the physiochemical properties of hydrocolloids 1087.3.1 Structural composition 1087.3.2 Swelling power 1097.3.3 Molecular weight 1107.3.4 Viscosity 1117.3.5 Thermal properties 1157.4 Mechanism and structural effects of ozone action on hydrocolloids 115References 1188 Ozone in Meat Processing 123Fred W. Pohlman8.1 Introduction 1238.2 Application of ozone in meat processing 1258.2.1 Surface decontamination of red meat 1258.2.2 Surface decontamination of poultry 1288.2.3 Other meat applications 1298.3 Effect on meat quality 130References 1339 Ozone in Seafood Processing 137Shigezou Naito9.1 Introduction 1379.2 Application of ozone in fish and storage of processed seafood products 1389.2.1 Fresh fish and seafood 1389.2.2 Dried and smoked products 1459.3 Application of ozone in seafood plant sanitation 1499.4 Effects of ozone on microbial safety 1539.5 Effects of ozone on fish and seafood quality and shelf life 1559.6 Current status and future trends for ozone and seafood 157References 16010 Ozone Sanitisation in the Food Industry 163P.J. Cullen and Tomás Norton10.1 Introduction 16310.2 Ozone as a sanitising agent 16510.3 Health and safety issues 16810.4 Using ozone in industrial cleaning procedures 16810.5 Ozone applications in food processing 17010.5.1 Dairy industry 17010.5.2 Wine industry 17210.5.3 Brewing industry 173References 17411 Ozone for Water Treatment and its Potential for Process Water Reuse in the Food Industry 177Tomás Norton and Paula MisiewiczNomenclature 17711.1 Introduction 17711.2 Water in the food industry 17911.2.1 Fresh produce processing 18011.2.2 Dairy processing 18111.2.3 Meat and poultry processing 18511.3 Ozonation as a water treatment process 18511.4 The kinetics of ozonation 18711.4.1 The kinetics of mass transfer 18811.4.2 Determining the chemical reaction kinetics 18911.4.3 Hydrodynamics 19111.4.4 Applications of hydrodynamic modelling to investigate ozone water treatment 19311.5 Conclusion 195References 19512 Ozone for Food Waste and Odour Treatment 201Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis12.1 Introduction 20112.2 Application of ozonation to waste treatment 20512.2.1 Wastewater of plant origin 20512.2.2 Wastewater of animal origin 20912.3 Application of ozonation to odour removal 21112.3.1 Odours originating from food industry processes 21312.3.2 Odours originating from agricultural operations 21312.4 Conclusions 216References 21613 Efficacy of Ozone on Pesticide Residues 223Gilbert Y.S. Chan and J.G. Wu13.1 Introduction 22313.2 Types of pesticides 22513.3 Fates of pesticides 22513.3.1 Degradation processes of pesticides 22513.3.2 Ozonation of pesticides 22713.4 Degradation mechanisms 22713.4.1 Kinetics 22713.4.2 Intermediates and oxidation products 22913.5 Ozone application for pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables 23113.6 Current status and opportunities 23413.6.1 Ozone concentrations 23413.6.2 Physical nature of plants affects degradation efficacy 23513.6.3 Future trends 235References 23614 Modelling Approaches for Ozone Processing 241Vasilis P. Valdramidis, P.J. Cullen and B.K. TiwariNomenclature 24114.1 Introduction 24214.2 Modelling approaches for microbial inactivation 24214.3 Chemical reaction kinetics 25014.4 Modelling ozonation processes 25514.4.1 Modelling ozone bubble columns 25514.4.2 Overall mass transfer coefficient 25714.5 Conclusions 259References 25915 Health and Safety Aspects of Ozone Processing 265Rip G. Rice15.1 Introduction 26515.2 Points of application of ozone during food processing 26615.2.1 Aqueous phase ozone applications 26615.2.2 Gas phase ozone applications 26715.3 Health and safety issues with ozone for food plant workers 26715.3.1 Ozone exposure regulations 26715.3.2 Potential fire hazards from high-purity oxygen use 27115.3.3 Safety history of ozone in commercial/industrial applications 27215.4 Avoiding worker exposure to ozone in food processing plants 27315.4.1 General considerations 27315.4.2 Specific plant safety measures 27415.4.3 Controlling off-gas ozone at Fresher Than Fresh fish processing/packaging plant 27515.4.4 Third-party evaluation of aqueous ozone spray wash equipment 27715.5 Safety of foods processed with ozone 28015.5.1 Nutrient impacts of ozone contact with foods 28015.5.2 Impacts of ozone processing of foods on vitamin contents 28115.5.3 Impacts of ozone processing of foods on protein contents 28215.5.4 Impacts of ozone processing of foods on lipid contents 28315.5.5 Toxicology aspects of ozone processing of foods 28315.6 Conclusions 285Acknowledgments 286References 286Index 289A colour plate section falls between pages 180 and 181