H. Ozan Özavcı, Ph.D. (2011) is a Research Fellow at the University of Utrecht and Fernand-Braudel Fellow at l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS) in Paris. He has published several articles in major international peer-reviewed journals and book sections about histories of liberalism, authoritarianism, security and political parties.

• Preface ... vii1 Introduction ... 11.1 The Making of a Liberal in Turkey ... 91.2 Ideas and Contexts ... 241.2.1 Ağaoğlu in Literature ... 272 Between Two Worlds: Ideas in the Making ... 342.1 Family Life and Education ... 352.1.1 Encounter with Russian Radicalism ... 382.1.2 Paris ... 422.2 Early French Influences ... 452.2.1 James Darmesteter and Ernest Renan ... 462.3 Early Writings ... 543 Return to the Near East ... 613.1 The Caucasus ... 613.1.1 The 1905 Petition, Violence and the End of the Oil Revolution ... 653.2 Istanbul ... 753.2.1 The Turkish Hearths ... 803.2.2 Activities during World War I ... 814 Rights, Religion and Nationalism ... 884.1 Rights and Equality ... 894.2 Religion, Modernity and the Question of Women ... 914.3 The Origins of Turkish Nationalism ... 1005 Founding the Republic ... 1205.1 The Establishment of an Authoritarian Regime ... 1235.2 The Economy and a Temporary Democracy ... 1336 Revolution and Ideology ... 1436.1 A Liberal Revolution? ... 1466.1.1 A Critique of the Revolutionaries ... 1496.2 Ideology and the Intelligentsia ... 1526.2.1 Two Liberalisms and Democracy ... 1567 State, Society and the Individual ... 1617.1 Liberal Order ... 1637.1.1 Durkheim and Ağaoğlu ... 1677.1.2 Elements of Modern Liberalism: Division of Labour, Occupational Groupings and Interdependence ... 1717.1.3 Civic Equality and Individual Liberty ... 1767.2 Étatism and Private Initiative ... 1788 Westernisation and Nationalism ... 1918.1 Turkey’s Westernisation ... 1928.2 The Hidden Dialogue between Gökalp and Ağaoğlu ... 1948.3 Nationalism Revisited ... 1998.4 Monday Evening Talks ... 2039 The Moral Ideology of the Republic ... 2079.1 Petr Kropotkin and the Sources of Morality ... 2099.2 The Origins of Moral Decadence Revisited ... 2129.3 The Land of Free Men ... 2149.4 The Divided Self ... 22010 Conclusion: The Road to Liberty? ... 229Bibliography ... 235Index ... 264

H. Ozan Özavcı, Ph.D. (2011) is a Research Fellow at the University of Utrecht and Fernand-Braudel Fellow at l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS) in Paris. He has published several articles in major international peer-reviewed journals and book sections about histories of liberalism, authoritarianism, security and political parties.

• Preface ... vii1 Introduction ... 11.1 The Making of a Liberal in Turkey ... 91.2 Ideas and Contexts ... 241.2.1 Ağaoğlu in Literature ... 272 Between Two Worlds: Ideas in the Making ... 342.1 Family Life and Education ... 352.1.1 Encounter with Russian Radicalism ... 382.1.2 Paris ... 422.2 Early French Influences ... 452.2.1 James Darmesteter and Ernest Renan ... 462.3 Early Writings ... 543 Return to the Near East ... 613.1 The Caucasus ... 613.1.1 The 1905 Petition, Violence and the End of the Oil Revolution ... 653.2 Istanbul ... 753.2.1 The Turkish Hearths ... 803.2.2 Activities during World War I ... 814 Rights, Religion and Nationalism ... 884.1 Rights and Equality ... 894.2 Religion, Modernity and the Question of Women ... 914.3 The Origins of Turkish Nationalism ... 1005 Founding the Republic ... 1205.1 The Establishment of an Authoritarian Regime ... 1235.2 The Economy and a Temporary Democracy ... 1336 Revolution and Ideology ... 1436.1 A Liberal Revolution? ... 1466.1.1 A Critique of the Revolutionaries ... 1496.2 Ideology and the Intelligentsia ... 1526.2.1 Two Liberalisms and Democracy ... 1567 State, Society and the Individual ... 1617.1 Liberal Order ... 1637.1.1 Durkheim and Ağaoğlu ... 1677.1.2 Elements of Modern Liberalism: Division of Labour, Occupational Groupings and Interdependence ... 1717.1.3 Civic Equality and Individual Liberty ... 1767.2 Étatism and Private Initiative ... 1788 Westernisation and Nationalism ... 1918.1 Turkey’s Westernisation ... 1928.2 The Hidden Dialogue between Gökalp and Ağaoğlu ... 1948.3 Nationalism Revisited ... 1998.4 Monday Evening Talks ... 2039 The Moral Ideology of the Republic ... 2079.1 Petr Kropotkin and the Sources of Morality ... 2099.2 The Origins of Moral Decadence Revisited ... 2129.3 The Land of Free Men ... 2149.4 The Divided Self ... 22010 Conclusion: The Road to Liberty? ... 229Bibliography ... 235Index ... 264

H. Ozan Özavcı, Ph.D. (2011) is a Research Fellow at the University of Utrecht and Fernand-Braudel Fellow at l’École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS) in Paris. He has published several articles in major international peer-reviewed journals and book sections about histories of liberalism, authoritarianism, security and political parties.

• Preface ... vii1 Introduction ... 11.1 The Making of a Liberal in Turkey ... 91.2 Ideas and Contexts ... 241.2.1 Ağaoğlu in Literature ... 272 Between Two Worlds: Ideas in the Making ... 342.1 Family Life and Education ... 352.1.1 Encounter with Russian Radicalism ... 382.1.2 Paris ... 422.2 Early French Influences ... 452.2.1 James Darmesteter and Ernest Renan ... 462.3 Early Writings ... 543 Return to the Near East ... 613.1 The Caucasus ... 613.1.1 The 1905 Petition, Violence and the End of the Oil Revolution ... 653.2 Istanbul ... 753.2.1 The Turkish Hearths ... 803.2.2 Activities during World War I ... 814 Rights, Religion and Nationalism ... 884.1 Rights and Equality ... 894.2 Religion, Modernity and the Question of Women ... 914.3 The Origins of Turkish Nationalism ... 1005 Founding the Republic ... 1205.1 The Establishment of an Authoritarian Regime ... 1235.2 The Economy and a Temporary Democracy ... 1336 Revolution and Ideology ... 1436.1 A Liberal Revolution? ... 1466.1.1 A Critique of the Revolutionaries ... 1496.2 Ideology and the Intelligentsia ... 1526.2.1 Two Liberalisms and Democracy ... 1567 State, Society and the Individual ... 1617.1 Liberal Order ... 1637.1.1 Durkheim and Ağaoğlu ... 1677.1.2 Elements of Modern Liberalism: Division of Labour, Occupational Groupings and Interdependence ... 1717.1.3 Civic Equality and Individual Liberty ... 1767.2 Étatism and Private Initiative ... 1788 Westernisation and Nationalism ... 1918.1 Turkey’s Westernisation ... 1928.2 The Hidden Dialogue between Gökalp and Ağaoğlu ... 1948.3 Nationalism Revisited ... 1998.4 Monday Evening Talks ... 2039 The Moral Ideology of the Republic ... 2079.1 Petr Kropotkin and the Sources of Morality ... 2099.2 The Origins of Moral Decadence Revisited ... 2129.3 The Land of Free Men ... 2149.4 The Divided Self ... 22010 Conclusion: The Road to Liberty? ... 229Bibliography ... 235Index ... 264