C.T. Russell – författare

The STEREO mission uses twin heliospheric orbiters to track solar disturbances from their initiation to 1 AU. This book documents the mission, its objectives, the spacecraft that execute it and the instruments that provide the measurements, both remote sensing and in situ. This mission promises to unlock many of the mysteries of how the Sun produces what has become to be known as space weather.

Mars sits very exposed to the solar wind. Ironically Mars possesses the strongest remanent magnetization of any body thus far visited in the solar system, yet the scale size of this magnetization is so small that it provides an insignificant shield against the solar wind. Compared to Venus that is eight times as massive, Mars has but a weak hold on its atmosphere. Mars has been the subject of intense study over the last four decades and we have learned much about its surface and lower atmosphere but studies of the solar wind interaction with its upper atmosphere and ionosphere have been much more rare. Mars 3 and 5 provided the first significant data on the induced magnetosphere, deflection of the solar wind and erosion of the atmosphere. PHOBOS-2 extended these measurements with a magnetometer and a plasma package, ASPERA (Automatic Space Plasma Experiment with a Rotating Analyzer). Itincreased our understanding of the interactions, but lasted far too short atime. Mars Global Surveyorcarried amagnetometer and an electron reflectometer and discovered the martian magnetic anomalies but added only slightly to our understanding of the interplay between the solar wind and the atmosphere. When the European Space Agency embarked on its Mars exploration strategy, it chose to include a comprehensive plasma package, on its pilot mission, Mars Ex­ press. Inretrospect it should have complemented this package with amagnetometer but it did not.

NASA’s MESSENGER mission, launched on 3 August, 2004 is the seventh mission in the Discovery series. MESSENGER encounters the planet Mercury four times, culminating with an insertion into orbit on 18 March 2011. It carries a comprehensive package of geophysical, geological, geochemical, and space environment experiments to complete the complex investigations of this solar-system end member begun with Mariner 10. The articles in this book, written by the experts in each area of the MESSENGER mission, describe the mission, spacecraft, scientific objectives, and payload. The book is of interest to all potential users of the data returned by the MESSENGER mission, to those studying the nature of Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, and by all those interested in the design and implementation of planetary exploration missions.

New Horizons: Reconnaissance of the Pluto–Charon System and the Kuiper Belt C. T. Russell Originally published in the journal Space Science Reviews, Volume 140, Nos 1–4, 1–2. DOI: 10. 1007/s11214-008-9450-0 © Springer Science+Business Media B. V. 2008 Exploration is mankind’s imperative. Since the beginnings of civilization, men and women have not been content to build a wall around their settlements and stay within its con nes. They explored the land around them, climbed the mountains, and scanned the horizons. The boldest among them pushed exploration to the most distant frontiers of the planet. As a result, much of the Earth was inhabited well before the days of the renowned European - th th plorers of the 15 and 16 centuries. Exploration did not cease, after the circumnavigation of the globe; it continued to the present. Today explorers are going in new directions, not just east and west, north and south. They explore backward in time and upward in space. Arc- ology explores the shorter time scales, and geochemistry the longer time scales of geophy- cal events: asteroidal and cometary collisions, magnetic reversals, continental formation and more. However, on Earth we cannot go back inde nitely, for much of the evidence of the very earliest days has been lost.

The articles in this volume are a document of the Galileo mission to Jupiter. "The Mission Overview" is the first article; the second is a description of the design of the very complex spacecraft trajectory in relation to the scientific objects. Subsequent articles describe the various investigations planned by the scientific groups. These are divided into three groups: the probe, the magnetospheric experiments, and the remote sensing and radio investigations.

Cluster was one of the two missions - the other being the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) - constituting the Solar Terrestrial Science Programme (STSP), the first "cornerstone" of ESA's Horizon 2000 Programme. After the catastrophic Ariane-5 accident on 4 June 1996 which destroyed the four Cluster spacecraft, the European Space Agency Science Programme Committee gave approval for the refurbishment of the spare Cluster spacecraft and its preparation for flight. This new spacecraft, considered to be the first of a new fleet, is called Phoenix. In the meantime various options for repeating the Cluster four-point measurements are being studied. Since Phoenix, as the fifth Cluster spacecraft, will be equipped with the spare Cluster experiments, the instrumentation articles in this book are still appropriate to the new mission. Furthermore, the objectives of the recovery mission, the ground systems, the ground observation programme and the theory and modelling efforts all remain unchanged.

This text describes the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous mission, its instruments, investigation plans and data center. It contains a complete description of the first launch of NASA's Discovery missions, a series of low-cost planetary missions. The NEAR spacecraft flew by the asteroid 253 Mathilde in June, 1997 on its way to rendezvous with the asteroid 433 Eros in January, 1999. The instruments described include the multispectral imager by S.E. Hawkins and colleagues, the near-infrared spectrometer by J.W. Hawkins and colleagues, the X-ray and gamma-ray spectrometer by J.O. Goldsten and colleagues, the laser altimeter by T.D. Cole and colleagues, and the magnetometer by D.A. Lohr and colleagues. K. Heeres concludes the book with a discussion of the NEAR Science Data Center. This book should be of interest to all potential users of the observations by the NEAR mission and to those interested in the scientific return from the mission, and in the planning of future such low-cost missions.

NASA's Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) was launched on August 25, 1997, carrying six high-resolution spectrometers that measure the abundances of the elements, isotopes, and ionic charge states of energetic nuclei in space. Eleven of the articles in this volume review scientific progress and outline questions that ACE will address in solar, space-plasma, and cosmic-ray physics. Other articles describe the ACE spacecraft, the real-time solar-wind system, and the instruments used to measure energetic particle composition. Data from these instruments is being used to measure and compare the composition of the solar corona, the nearby interstellar medium, and cosmic-ray sources in the Galaxy, and to study particle acceleration processes in a variety of environments. ACE also includes three instruments that monitor solar wind and energetic particle activity near the inner Langrangian point, 1.5 million kilometres sunward of Earth, and provide continuous, real-time data to NOAA for use in forecasting space weather.

The joint NASA-ESA Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn is the most ambitious planetary mission since the VEGA mission to Venus and Halley in 1985/86 and the Viking arbiters and landers to Mars in 1976. Perhaps Cassini is even more ambitious than these earlier missions, or at least more daring, as it is being attempted as a single launch unlike early missions such as VEGA, Viking and Voyager that benefited from the security of a redundant spacecraft. This volume describes the mission, the orbiter spacecraft, the Titan atmospheric probe and the mission design in articles written by its project scientists and engineering team. These are followed by five articles from each of the discipline working groups discussing the existing knowledge of the Saturnian system and their goals for the mission. Finally, each of the Huygens entry probe instrument teams describes their instruments and measurement objectives. These instruments include an atmospheric structure instrument, an aerosol pyrolyser, an imager/radiometer, a gas chromatograph, a surface science package and a radio science investigation.

NASA's Genesis mission, launched on August 8, 2001 is the fifth mission in the Discovery series. Genesis addresses questions about the materials and processes involved in the origin of the solar system by providing precise knowledge of solar isotopic and elemental compositions for comparison with the compositions of meteoritic and planetary materials. This book describes the Genesis mission, the solar wind collector materials, the solar wind concentrator and simulations of its performance, the plasma ion and electron instruments, and the way these two instruments are used to determine the solar wind flow regime on board the spacecraft. The book should be of interest to all potential users of the data returned by the Genesis mission, to those studying the isotopic and chemical composition of the early solar system whose work will be influenced by the measurements made by Genesis and by all those interested in the design and implementation of space instruments to study space plasmas.

Mars, the most habitable of our sister planets, holds a special place in our imaginations and in our space exploration program. Fully half of NASA's planetary exploration effort is now devoted to Mars. Key questions include: Has Mars ever harbored life? Is there life on Mars now? Will humans be able to survive on the Martian surface? Answers to these questions lie in determining the present location of water on Mars and its likely inventory in the past, and in determining the present radiation environment of Mars. The 2001 Mars Odyssey Mission contributes greatly these answers by detecting near-surface water through measurements of neutron flux, from the detection of carbonates, and the quantification of its radiation environment. This book captures the objectives, the design of the mission and the details of the instruments carried to Mars. It should be of interest to every scientist interested in participating in the on-going exploration of Mars from graduate students to senior scientists as it provides the background information essential to interpret the many exciting results now appearing from the mission.

The joint NASA-ESA Cassini-Huygens mission promises to return four (and possibly more) years of unparalleled scientific data from the solar system’s most exotic planet, the ringed, gas giant, Saturn. Larger than Galileo with a much greater communication bandwidth, Cassini can accomplish in a single flyby what Galileo returned in a series of passes. Cassini explores the Saturn environment in three dimensions, using gravity assists to climb out of the equatorial plane to look down on the rings from above, to image the aurora and to study polar magnetospheric processes such as field-aligned currents. Since the radiation belt particle fluxes are much more benign than those at Jupiter, Cassini can more safely explore the inner regions of the magnetosphere. The spacecraft approaches the planet closer than Galileo could, and explores the inner moons and the rings much more thoroughly than was possible at Jupiter.This book is the second volume, in a three volume set, that describes the Cassini/Huygens mission. This volume describes the in situ investigations on the Cassini orbiter: plasma spectrometer, ion and neutral mass spectrometer, energetic charged and neutral particle spectrometer, magnetometer, radio and plasma wave spectrometer and the cosmic dust analyzer. This book is of interest to all potential users of the Cassini-Huygens data, to those who wish to learn about the planned scientific return from the Cassini-Huygens mission and those curious about the processes occurring on this most fascinating planet. A third volume describes the remote sensing investigations on the orbiter.

Deep Impact, or at least part of the flight system, is designed to crash into comet 9P/Tempel 1. This bold mission design enables cometary researchers to peer into the cometary nucleus, analyzing the excavated material with its imagers and spectrometers.

C. T. Russell Originally published in the journal Space Science Reviews, Volume 136, Nos 1–4. DOI: 10. 1007/s11214-008-9344-1 © Springer Science+Business Media B. V. 2008 The Sun-Earth Connection is now an accepted fact. It has a signi cant impact on our daily lives, and its underpinnings are being pursued vigorously with missions such as the Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory, commonly known as STEREO. This was not always so. It was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that Edward Sabine connected the 11-year geomagnetic cycle with Heinrich Schwabe’s deduction of a like periodicity in the sunspot record. The clincher for many was Richard Carrington’s sighting of a great whi- light are on the Sun, on September 1, 1859, followed by a great geomagnetic storm 18 hours later. But was the Sun-Earth Connection signi cant to terrestrial denizens? Perhaps in 1859 it was not, but a century later it became so. Beginning in the 1930’s, as electrical powergrids grew in size, powercompanies began to realize that they occasionally had power blackouts during periods of intense geomagnetic activity. This correlation did not appear to be suf ciently signi cant to bring to the attention of the public but during the International Geophysical Year (IGY), when geomagnetic activity was being scrutinized intensely, the occurrence of a large North American power blackout during a great magnetic storm was impossible to ignore.

New Horizons: Reconnaissance of the Pluto–Charon System and the Kuiper Belt C. T. Russell Originally published in the journal Space Science Reviews, Volume 140, Nos 1–4, 1–2. DOI: 10. 1007/s11214-008-9450-0 © Springer Science+Business Media B. V. 2008 Exploration is mankind’s imperative. Since the beginnings of civilization, men and women have not been content to build a wall around their settlements and stay within its con nes. They explored the land around them, climbed the mountains, and scanned the horizons. The boldest among them pushed exploration to the most distant frontiers of the planet. As a result, much of the Earth was inhabited well before the days of the renowned European - th th plorers of the 15 and 16 centuries. Exploration did not cease, after the circumnavigation of the globe; it continued to the present. Today explorers are going in new directions, not just east and west, north and south. They explore backward in time and upward in space. Arc- ology explores the shorter time scales, and geochemistry the longer time scales of geophy- cal events: asteroidal and cometary collisions, magnetic reversals, continental formation and more. However, on Earth we cannot go back inde nitely, for much of the evidence of the very earliest days has been lost.

JAXA’s Kaguya mission was successfully launched to the Moon on September 14, 2007 reaching its nominal 100 km circular orbit on October 19 after releasing two subsatellites Okina and Ouna in elliptical orbits with perilunes of 100 km and apolunes of 2400 and 800 km respectively. Observations were obtained for 10 months during the nominal mission beginning in mid-December 2007 followed by 8 month extended mission where data were obtained in lower orbits.The articles in this book were written by experts in each of the scientific areas of the Kaguya mission, and describe both the mission and the individual scientific investigations, including their objectives, the specifications of the instruments, their calibrations and initial results. This book is essential reading to all potential users of the Kaguya data and those interested in the scientific results of the mission, the properties of the lunar surface and crust and planetary exploration in general.

Mars sits very exposed to the solar wind. Ironically Mars possesses the strongest remanent magnetization of any body thus far visited in the solar system, yet the scale size of this magnetization is so small that it provides an insignificant shield against the solar wind. Compared to Venus that is eight times as massive, Mars has but a weak hold on its atmosphere. Mars has been the subject of intense study over the last four decades and we have learned much about its surface and lower atmosphere but studies of the solar wind interaction with its upper atmosphere and ionosphere have been much more rare. Mars 3 and 5 provided the first significant data on the induced magnetosphere, deflection of the solar wind and erosion of the atmosphere. PHOBOS-2 extended these measurements with a magnetometer and a plasma package, ASPERA (Automatic Space Plasma Experiment with a Rotating Analyzer). Itincreased our understanding of the interactions, but lasted far too short atime. Mars Global Surveyorcarried amagnetometer and an electron reflectometer and discovered the martian magnetic anomalies but added only slightly to our understanding of the interplay between the solar wind and the atmosphere. When the European Space Agency embarked on its Mars exploration strategy, it chose to include a comprehensive plasma package, on its pilot mission, Mars Ex­ press. Inretrospect it should have complemented this package with amagnetometer but it did not.

JAXA’s Kaguya mission was successfully launched to the Moon on September 14, 2007 reaching its nominal 100 km circular orbit on October 19 after releasing two subsatellites Okina and Ouna in elliptical orbits with perilunes of 100 km and apolunes of 2400 and 800 km respectively. Observations were obtained for 10 months during the nominal mission beginning in mid-December 2007 followed by 8 month extended mission where data were obtained in lower orbits.The articles in this book were written by experts in each of the scientific areas of the Kaguya mission, and describe both the mission and the individual scientific investigations, including their objectives, the specifications of the instruments, their calibrations and initial results. This book is essential reading to all potential users of the Kaguya data and those interested in the scientific results of the mission, the properties of the lunar surface and crust and planetary exploration in general.

NASA’s MESSENGER mission, launched on 3 August, 2004 is the seventh mission in the Discovery series.

The joint NASA-ESA Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn is the most ambitious planetary mission since the VEGA mission to Venus and Halley in 1985/86 and the Viking arbiters and landers to Mars in 1976. This volume describes the mission, the orbiter spacecraft, the Titan atmospheric probe and the mission design in articles written by its project scientists and engineering team. These are followed by five articles from each of the discipline working groups discussing the existing knowledge of the Saturnian system and their goals for the mission. Finally, each of the Huygens entry probe instrument teams describes their instruments and measurement objectives. These instruments include an atmospheric structure instrument, an aerosol pyrolyser, an imager/radiometer, a gas chromatograph, a surface science package and a radio science investigation. This book is of interest to all potential users of the Cassini-Huygens data, to those who wish to learn about the planned scientific return from the Cassini-Huygens mission and those curious about the processes occurring on this most fascinating planet.

Deep Impact, or at least part of the flight system, is designed to crash into comet 9P/Tempel 1. This bold mission design enables cometary researchers to peer into the cometary nucleus, analyzing the excavated material with its imagers and spectrometers. The book describes the mission, its objectives, expected results, payload, and data products in articles written by those most closely involved. This mission has the potential of revolutionizing our understanding of the cometary nucleus.

NASA's Genesis mission, launched on August 8, 2001 is the fifth mission in the Discovery series. Genesis addresses questions about the materials and processes involved in the origin of the solar system by providing precise knowledge of solar isotopic and elemental compositions for comparison with the compositions of meteoritic and planetary materials. This book describes the Genesis mission, the solar wind collector materials, the solar wind concentrator and simulations of its performance, the plasma ion and electron instruments, and the way these two instruments are used to determine the solar wind flow regime on board the spacecraft. The book is of interest to all potential users of the data returned by the Genesis mission, to those studying the isotopic and chemical composition of the early solar system whose work will be influenced by the measurements made by Genesis and by all those interested in the design and implementation of space instruments to study space plasmas.

The articles in this volume are a document of the Galileo mission to Jupiter. The Mission Overview is the first article; the second is a description of the design of the very complex spacecraft trajectory in relation to the scientific objects. Subsequent articles describe the various investigations planned by the scientific groups. These are divided in three groups: the Probe, the Magnetospheric Experiments, and the Remote Sensing and Radio Investigations.

For almost three decades since Mariner 2 flew by the planet in December 1962, Venus has been the subject of intense investigation by both the Soviet and American space programs. Since the intrinsic magnetic field of Venus is exceedingly weak, if it exists at all, we expect many phenomena of the upper atmosphere and ionosphere of Venus to differ from their terrestrial counterparts. While flybys and landings of the many Venus missions provided useful data on these phenomena, orbital missions were needed for their detailed investigation. Such orbital missions were provided by the Soviet program with Veneras 9 and 10 in October 1975 and by the United States with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter in December 1978. Originally designed for a prime mission of only 243 days, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter is still functioning over a decade later, providing data nearly - hours a day through one of the most active solar cycles to date. We expect these transmis­ sions to continue until September 1992 when gravitation perturbations will lower the periapsis of the PVO orbit so that the spacecraft will be lost to the atmosphere. The Venera 9 and 10 and the Pioneer Venus observations have led to an explosion of knowledge about the upper atmosphere and ionosphere of Venus and their interaction with the solar wind. The availability of data over a full solar cycle has.

NASA's Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) was launched on August 25, 1997, carrying six high-resolution spectrometers that measure the abundances of the elements, isotopes, and ionic charge states of energetic nuclei in space. Data from these instruments is being used to measure and compare the composition of the solar corona, the nearby interstellar medium, and cosmic-ray sources in the Galaxy, and to study particle acceleration processes in a variety of environments. ACE also includes three instruments that monitor solar wind and energetic particle activity near the inner Lagrangian point, "1.5 million kilometers sunward of Earth, and provide continuous, real-time data to NOAA for use in forecasting space weather. Eleven of the articles in this volume review scientific progress and outline questions that ACE will address in solar, space-plasma, and cosmic-ray physics. Other articles describe the ACE spacecraft, the real-time solar-wind system, and the instruments used to measure energetic particle composition.

Even before the present Administrator of NASA, Daniel Goldin, made the phrase 'better, faster, cheaper' the slogan of at least the Office of Space Science, that same office under the Associate Administrator of Lennard Fisk and its Division of Solar System Exploration under the direction of Wes Huntress had begun a series of planetary spacecraft whose developmental cost, phase CID in the parlance of the trade, was to be held to under $150M. In order to get the program underway rapidly they chose two missions without the open solicitation now the hallmark of the program. One of these two missions, JPL' s Mars Pathfinder, was to be a technology demonstration mission with little immediate science return that would enable later high priority science missions to Mars. Many of the science investigations that were included had significant foreign contributions to keep NASA's cost of the mission within the Discovery budget. The second of these missions and the first to be launched was the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous mission, or NEAR, awarded to Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory. This mission was quite different than Mars Pathfinder, being taken from the list of high priority objectives of the science community and emphasizing the science return and not the technology development of the mission. This mission was also to prove to be well under the $150M phase CID cap.

Cluster was one of the two missions - the other being the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) - constituting the Solar Terrestrial Science Programme (STSP), the first `cornerstone' of ESA's Horizon 2000 Programme.

Proceedings of IAGA/IAMAP Joint Assembly, August 22--September 3, 1977, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.

Mars, the most habitable of our sister planets, holds a special place in our imaginations and in our space exploration program. Answers to these questions lie in determining the present location of water on Mars and its likely inventory in the past, and in determining the present radiation environment of Mars.