Challenges Facing Chinese Political Development – serie

New Dimensions of Chinese Foreign Policy is an in-depth analysis of China's new place in international affairs. Taking Hu Jintao's proposal for 'peaceful development' as a starting point, the contributors in this volume examine the new trends of thought in the fourth generation of Chinese policymakers. Special emphasis is placed on US-China relations. Editors Sujian Guo and Shiping Hua have assembled a list of contributors_many of which are Chinese or Chinese-American scholars_with thorough knowledge of changes in Chinese foreign policy and their implications for the world. The essays contained in this volume cover a comprehensive breadth of topics, including: China's changing ideology in foreign policy, Chinese elite perspectives on the rise of China, the political orientations of the emerging elite, social dimensions of China's power status, 'soft power' management, approaches to the North Korean nuclear issues, Middle East foreign policy, entry into World Trade Organization and foreign trade policy, changing attitudes toward international regimes, and the implications of China-U.S. interdependence. The insightful contributions of New Dimensions of Chinese Foreign Policy is essential reading for any student or researcher of contemporary Chinese politics.

New Dimensions of Chinese Foreign Policy is an in-depth analysis of China's new place in international affairs. Taking Hu Jintao's proposal for 'peaceful development' as a starting point, the contributors in this volume examine the new trends of thought in the fourth generation of Chinese policymakers. Special emphasis is placed on US-China relations. Editors Sujian Guo and Shiping Hua have assembled a list of contributors_many of which are Chinese or Chinese-American scholars_with thorough knowledge of changes in Chinese foreign policy and their implications for the world. The essays contained in this volume cover a comprehensive breadth of topics, including: China's changing ideology in foreign policy, Chinese elite perspectives on the rise of China, the political orientations of the emerging elite, social dimensions of China's power status, 'soft power' management, approaches to the North Korean nuclear issues, Middle East foreign policy, entry into World Trade Organization and foreign trade policy, changing attitudes toward international regimes, and the implications of China-U.S. interdependence. The insightful contributions of New Dimensions of Chinese Foreign Policy is essential reading for any student or researcher of contemporary Chinese politics.

Challenges Facing Chinese Political Development is a topical examination of some of the most recent developments in Chinese politics. Featuring a roster of international scholars, the book comprosises an assortment of essays focusing on a particular dimension or specific issue of political culture, political economy, foreign policy, environmental and social challenges. The editors, Sujian Guo and Baogang Guo, have divided the essays into five pairs: Political Legitimacy, Political Economy, External Challenges, Environmental Challenges, and Social Challenges. Each of these dimensions serves as a window through which the reader can glimpse various challenges in Chinese political development in the new century.Challenges Facing Chinese Political Development is suitable for all levels of students and researchers of Chinese Politics.

Challenges Facing Chinese Political Development is a topical examination of some of the most recent developments in Chinese politics. Featuring a roster of international scholars, the book comprosises an assortment of essays focusing on a particular dimension or specific issue of political culture, political economy, foreign policy, environmental and social challenges. The editors, Sujian Guo and Baogang Guo, have divided the essays into five pairs: Political Legitimacy, Political Economy, External Challenges, Environmental Challenges, and Social Challenges. Each of these dimensions serves as a window through which the reader can glimpse various challenges in Chinese political development in the new century.Challenges Facing Chinese Political Development is suitable for all levels of students and researchers of Chinese Politics.

This book examines the new equity-enhancing politics in China in the context of Chinese traditional cognitive patterns of political legitimacy and its implication for Chinese political development in the near future. Based on an analysis of the new governing philosophy, the generation of political elite, and a new set of public policies, the book reaffirms the emergence of a new Chinese polity that infuses one-party rule with limited electoral and deliberative democracies.Unlike many scholars who perceive the contemporary Chinese history as a constant search for democracy, this book takes a very different approach. It asserts that the enduring question in political development in China today is no different from what was sought after throughout Chinese history, namely, the constant search for political legitimacy. Even though the quest for democracy is instrumental to that end, it may not ultimately lead to the embrace of a full-fledged liberal democracy. The new politics is not only a rationalization of the efficiency-based development, but also a major paradigm shift in China's developmental strategy.

The Dragon's Hidden Wings is the first comprehensive study on China's use of soft power. Sheng Ding provides the reader with an insightful empirical study that details China's economic and political rise on the global scene over the course of the last three decades. This book not only endeavors to examine the connections between the ongoing rise of China and what Joseph Nye defines as soft power, but also attempts to give readers a more complete understanding of China's national power and modernization process. The main questions addressed are: What are the theoretical and empirical connections between the soft power concept and the rise of China? What are China's own soft power resources? How has Beijing used soft power to become a major player in the world? What opportunities and challenges does the use of soft power present to China? This study is essential reading for scholars of Chinese politics and foreign policy, and for scholars of international relation interested in the concept and application of soft power.

The Dragon's Hidden Wings is the first comprehensive study on China's use of soft power. Sheng Ding provides the reader with an insightful empirical study that details China's economic and political rise on the global scene over the course of the last three decades. This book not only endeavors to examine the connections between the ongoing rise of China and what Joseph Nye defines as soft power, but also attempts to give readers a more complete understanding of China's national power and modernization process. The main questions addressed are: What are the theoretical and empirical connections between the soft power concept and the rise of China? What are China's own soft power resources? How has Beijing used soft power to become a major player in the world? What opportunities and challenges does the use of soft power present to China? This study is essential reading for scholars of Chinese politics and foreign policy, and for scholars of international relation interested in the concept and application of soft power.

'Harmonious World' and China's New Foreign Policy consists of essays by China specialists on the Chinese government's characterization of foreign policy as a 'harmonious world.' The essays deal with such topics as 'harmonious world' and China's new diplomacy, China's multilateral diplomacy after the Cold War, China's changing image of and engagement with the world order, China's energy security diplomacy, and China's trade diplomacy. These insightful contributions will help students in this academic field understand the new concepts and programs adopted by the Chinese new leadership and their important implications for China's new foreign policy behavior in the years to come.

'Harmonious World' and China's New Foreign Policy consists of essays by China specialists on the Chinese government's characterization of foreign policy as a 'harmonious world.' The essays deal with such topics as 'harmonious world' and China's new diplomacy, China's multilateral diplomacy after the Cold War, China's changing image of and engagement with the world order, China's energy security diplomacy, and China's trade diplomacy. These insightful contributions will help students in this academic field understand the new concepts and programs adopted by the Chinese new leadership and their important implications for China's new foreign policy behavior in the years to come.

The problems of corruption, social injustice, public unrest, disparity in income and regional development, shortage of energy and resources, unemployment, aging population, inadequate social and economic safety network, pollution, etc., are poised to jeopardize political stability and cast a shadow on the moral foundation of economic reform. How to cope with these new problems is a daunting task facing the Chinese leadership and people in the twenty-first century. The new generation of leadership under Hu Jintao has begun to search for solutions and directions. "Building a harmonious society" based on a "scientific view of development" has become a new catch phrase in political and academic discourse in China and a newly adopted program by the Chinese government. It is in this context that this edited volume brings together a group of China scholars to discuss the concept and goal of building a harmonious society. This book will be of interest to professors and students of China studies, as well as policy makers and researchers.

Since the Chinese were officially plugged into the virtual community in 1994, the usage of the internet in the country has developed at an incredible rate. By the end of 2008, there were approximately 298 million netizens in China, a number which surpasses that of the U.S. and ranks China the highest user in the world. The rapid development of the online Chinese community has not only boosted the information flow among citizens across the territory, but has also created a new form of social interaction between the state, the media, various professionals and intellectuals, as well as China's ordinary citizens. Although the subject of this book is online Chinese nationalism, which to a certain extent is seen as a pro-regime phenomenon, the emergence of an online civil society in China intrinsically provides some form of supervision of state power-perhaps even a check on it. The fact that the party-state has made use of this social interaction, while at the same time remaining worried about the negative impact of the same netizens, is a fundamental characteristic of the nature of the relationship between the state and the internet community. Many questions arise when considering the internet and Chinese nationalism. Which are the most important internet sites carrying online discussion of nationalism related to the author's particular area of study? What are the differences between online nationalism and the conventional form of nationalism, and why do these differences exist? Has nationalist online expression influenced actual foreign policy making? Has nationalist online expression influenced discourse in the mainstream mass media in China? Have there been any counter reactions towards online nationalism? Where do they come from? Online Chinese Nationalism and China's Bilateral Relations seeks to address these questions.

China's growth in the past few decades has been unprecedented, and continues to stay strong as it expands its influence around the globe. However, in many ways, the once insular China is still looking to find its footing as an international player in the globalization game. Greater China in an Era of Globalization looks at the success of China and its surrounding territories of Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau and asks the question "What is Chinese globalization?". The contributors in this volume look to answer this question by examining China's role both in its immediate sphere of influence and in the greater world. In doing so, the contributors argue that its push to globalize has had as much effect on the country itself, both politically and culturally, as it has had on the world. The contributors further the argument by analyzing China's influence on the rising nations in Africa and Latin America, before ending the book with a comparative analysis between it and the historic rise and fall of influence of its European counterparts.

Toward Better Governance in China takes a fresh look at the latest efforts made by Chinese leaders to promote governance-based reform. It asserts that the improvement of governance has now become one of the breakthrough points of the much anticipated political reform. Although the Chinese government continues to play down expectations about political reform, many small-scale reform experiments have been quietly undertaken by Chinese leaders at various levels in recent years, including the new round of administrative reform centered on the creation of "super ministries," the enlargement of inner-party democracy within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the strengthening of local legislative bodies, and judicial reform designed to promote judicial independence and rule of law. This strategy calls for strengthening governing capacity and changing government functions. One of the advantages in placing the improvement of governance first is that it is less risky than embarking upon a full-scaled electoral reform. Electoral democracy is undoubtedly an important element in a functional democracy. But equally important is the effectiveness, transparency, accountability, and openness of the governing process. Better governance implies greater transparency, open deliberation and participation, and less adversarial political confrontation and conflict. If constructed properly, China may become the sort of democratic administration or administrative democracy that Robert Dahl discussed in 1947. Clearly, political reform of this kind does not follow the conventional wisdom of a democratic transition which places heavy emphasis on electoral reform or the precedence of the electoral reform to the government reform. This book is intended to shed some new light on the ongoing debate about the direction of China's political development.

For the past several decades, China has been transforming itself from an isolated and backward agrarian society into an economic superpower with global interests and responsibilities. Over 300 million Chinese have been lifted out of poverty and China now enjoys the fastest growing and third largest economy on earth. Not surprisingly, numerous changes in China's foreign relations have accompanied the astounding transformations in the country's domestic politics and society. Perhaps most surprising to some observers is Beijing's aggressive foray into the so-called developing world. This co-edited book focuses on China's increasing engagement with many of the less developed countries-particularly those in Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East-and explores the current and future trends in Beijing's foreign relations. The old and hackneyed call for revolutionary struggle and world revolution has been consigned to the dustbin of history. In its place is a concrete pledge to construct a 'win-win' relationship with any country willing to deepen ties with Beijing. Dancing with the Dragon will help readers gain a greater understanding of China's foreign relations in this critical part of the global community.

Despite China's desire to make its rapid ascendance in the 21st century as non provocative as possible, the key to ensure China's peaceful rise lies in two-way integration and engagement. A closely integrated China with the rest of the world and China's acceptance of existing international norms and rules may compel China to behave in a more predictable and responsive way. This co-edited book examines China's rising military capacity and the complex feelings its neighbors, such as Taiwan, South Korea and India, have toward the increasingly powerful China. The focus of this book is on the efforts made by China to brand her non-aggressive image through promoting public diplomacy and expanding regional free trade and cooperation in Asia and Latin America. It uses the cross-Taiwan-strait relations as a testing ground for the prospect of peace between the two former adversaries. China's Quiet Rise will help readers understand why integration, instead of isolation and containment, may be the most effective way to facilitate China's peaceful rise.

The year 2009 marks the 30th anniversary of normalization of Sino-U.S. relations. Over the past 30 years, the bilateral relations have developed by twists and turns. It is not until recent years that some stability and forward-looking exchanges have returned to the central stage, albeit tension, grievances, and mistrust continue to persist. Washington has encouraged China to become a “responsible stakeholder” in the world affairs, while China has urged the U.S. to work with China to build a “harmonious world.” Both sides want to work together to solve their differences through dialogs and negotiations. In the wake of the worldwide financial crisis of 2008–2009, China has contributed greatly in financing the crumbling U.S. financial market and lent a helping hand in stabilizing the world economy. Nevertheless, the foundation of the relationship remains very fragile and the long-term prospect for a constructive cooperative relationship is still full of uncertainties. For many Americans, China’s increasing global reach and growing political and economic influence constitute the greatest challenge to world dominance by the United States. As a result, some perceive China’s rise as a threat to Americans’ core national interests.The recent changes in the global geostrategic landscape and economic interdependence have suggested that some new ideas, factors, conditions, and elements are shaping the relations between the two countries. The task of Thirty Years of China-U.S. Relations: Analytical Approaches and Contemporary Issues is to explore these factors, issues, and challenges and their impact for the bilateral relations in the 21st century.

China is a multiethnic country with vast territory, a land of diverse ecosystems. With the drive for industrialization in China and the implementation of 'western grand development' strategy in western regions, both governments and people face great challenges in environmental protection and sustainable use of biodiversity resources as a result of growing interaction between human activities and natural environment. To meet the challenges, governments in these regions need to adopt a series of important policy measures, not only to reduce industrial emissions, but also to return farmland to forests and pasture to grasslands and to implement measures of ecological migration to reduce human activities in ecological conservation areas. In this regard, China must not only learn profound lessons from industrialized countries but also search for international cooperation. The United States provides some good comparative case studies on the environmental protection, grassroots environmental management, and conservation policies in western regions This book attempts to address key questions about Chinese and U.S. environmental policies by looking at historical development of environmental protection and current environmental policy in the western regions of the two countries.

This book stands as a rebuke to any who would attempt to forward simplistic interpretations of China's rise. In place of parsimonious arguments, or an endorsement of any singular set of images (whether pacific or confrontational), it repeatedly calls attention to the remarkable complexity of China's emerging international profile. More specifically, the leading Chinese and American scholars working in the fields of Chinese foreign policy, international political economy, and national security, who contributed to this volume argue that while China appears to be entering a new era in its relationship with the outside world, such a development encompasses disparate, even contradictory, policies, and, as a result, there is a great deal of fluidity within China's place in world politics.

The Chinese government has attempted to bolster its legitimacy as a political response to emerging social, cultural, political, economic, environmental challenges and crises experienced during market-oriented reforms and rapid modernization in China. However, contrary to the Western preference for liberal democracy and "procedural legitimacy," the Chinese government's attempt at bolstering legitimacy has emphasized performance-based, responsibility-based, morality-based, and ideology-based arguments in order to gain popular support and maintain regime stability. In order to understand and explain political phenomena in China, it is necessary to revisit the concepts, theories, and sources of legitimacy and their applications in the Chinese context. Contributors of this book have approached legitimacy from both normative and empirical perspectives, and from Western and Chinese perspectives, thus this edited volume offers lessons and insights for and from China, and contributes to the ongoing theoretical debates as well as empirical research on legitimacy in the Chinese context.

The on-going debate on China’s development model presents a fascinating yet very different image of Chinese exceptionalism, an idea that is similar to American exceptionalism. Is China exceptionalism a myth or reality? Will modern China, born of Confucian creeds, be culturally, economically and politically distinct from Western industrialized nations in an age of globalization? Does the Confucian culture make any qualitative difference in China’s developmental path and her international behavior in dealing with other nations? Will China be something of a paradox? Will this claim of distinction be a double-edged sword that will eventually hunt China in its future development? To decipher the complex Chinese labyrinth, this coedited book explores the development of a new social democracy, the Chinese vision of human rights and civil society, the asymmetry between economic and political development and the puzzle it presents, and the informal politics and Chinese innovation on governance and problem solving. We will also present a number of studies detailing innovations and systems that are distinctively Chinese, including innovations at local governances, the intriguing relationship between NGOs and the state, the grievance-addressing system (xinfang), and the co-existence of atheists and theists in China. As a multi-disciplinary research project, it attempts to shed some lights on these important questions.

Coincided with China’s economic reform and her rapid ascendance to a great power status, the relations between Taiwan and Chinese mainland since 1979 have also seen some encouraging development. However, the rapprochement is nothing but a smooth ride. Taiwan Strait has always been full of tensions and hostility since the communist took over the mainland over sixty years ago.The periodical tensions in the cross-Strait relations have from time to time threatened to derail the peace talks between the two sides, and poised to jeopardize the region’s peace and stability.This book studies the past, present and future relations across the Taiwan Strait and examines many important questions such as internal and external factors contributing to the Taiwan’s shift in her mainland policy, impacts of Taiwan democratization on the cross-Strait relations, the development of Taiwanese identity and rise of Taiwanese nationalism, the possibility of expanding Taiwan’s international space under the shadow of China, the prospect of reunification between Taiwan and China, and the roles of the third parties, such as U.S., NGOs and Taiwan businessmen, in the changing relationship between the two sides. Taiwan and the Rise of China will certainly help readers, especially those who lack of historical perspective of the political division of the two political adversaries, to grasp the complexity and nature of the cross-Strait relations and faster a real understanding of the significance of this relationship to peace in the region as well as the world in the 21st century.

This book combines empirical research and theoretical discussions to demonstrate that the civil society paradigm as a western concept could be applicable to the study of state-society relations in contemporary China. However, the growth of Chinese civil society does not necessarily present an adversarial or confrontational relationship between state and society, but rather it is a cooperative relationship based on common interests and mutual benefits between industrial associations and local governments. The findings of this research confirm that, in contrast to the conventional civil society model in Western and Eastern Europe, where civic organizations are independent of the state, challenging the state hegemony, Chinese civic organizations, however, still lack autonomy and even remain closely linked to the state, but they are growing and expanding their public space and important role in public affairs through active participation. This non-western path for civil society development is a precise reflection of reality that is profoundly shaped and constrained by Chinese institutional, sociological, and cultural context. Through close investigation into the industrial, organizational, and social governance of industrial associations in Wenzhou and in-depth analysis of their challenges and developments within the institutional context, this book provides fresh empirical evidence and insightful analysis of how industrial associations have actively participated in local industrial governance and conduct of public affairs, gained greater space for their development, and become indispensable partners of local government in social governance.

During the early 1980s China embarked on what can be seen as one of the world’s largest social experiments ever. Decollectivization meant much more than the reorganization of agricultural production into family based farming. It signaled significant changes to rural social relations, when privatization, marketization and increased geographical mobility started tearing apart the economic and social institutions that had structured collective village life under Mao. The focus of this book is on how rural society has been reorganized in the 21st century. The first chapters outline the basic organizational structure of rural China and can be used as an introduction to the topic in a classroom setting. They show how the state and its social scientists draw up plans to overcome the perceived lack of rural social organization, and discuss the often problem-ridden implementation of their ideas. The second section presents case studies of institutions that organize key aspects of rural life: Boarding schools where rural children learn to accept organizational hierarchies; lineage organizations carving out new roles for themselves; “dragonhead enterprises” expected to organize agricultural production and support rural development, and several others. The book is of theoretical interest because of its focus on the re-embedding, or reintegration, of individuals into new types of collectivities, which are less predetermined by tradition and habit and more a matter of, at least perceived, individual choice. Most chapters are based on extensive fieldwork and contain vivid examples from daily life, which will make the book attractive to anyone who wants to understand how Chinese villagers experience the extraordinary social changes they are going through.

This monograph ties in the scholarly debate on Chinese village elections and their consequences for China’s political system. It draws on comparative fieldwork conducted in six villages in two counties in Jiangxi and Jilin Provinces and one district in Shenzhen between 2002 and 2005, producing data from some 140 in-depth interviews of villagers and local officials up to the prefectural level. The major objective of this book is as much a critical assessment of the research literature of Chinese village elections published over the last fifteen years as to sharpen the reader’s sight for the scope and limits of this important reform to generate regime legitimacy in the local state, an issue which has so far been neglected in the study of Chinese village elections. It hence contributes to our understanding of the nexus between political participation and cadre accountability at the grassroots, and highlights a number of factors ensuring the persistence of one-party rule in contemporary China.

This book looks at the relationship between Chinese international relations (IR) scholarship and China’s rise as a world power. Specifically, it addresses how China’s rising international status since the early 1990s has shaped the country’s IR studies, and the different ways that Chinese IR scholars are interpreting that rise. The author argues that the development of IR studies in China has been influenced by China’s past historical experiences, its recent change in status in world politics, and indigenous scholarly interpretations of both factors. Instead of treating Chinese IR scholars as value-free social scientists, the author shows how Chinese scholars—as purposive, strategic, and emotional actors—tend to manipulate existing (mostly Western) IR theories to support their policy propositions and identity statements. This book represents one of few efforts to determine how local Chinese scholars are constructing IR knowledge, how they are dealing with intersections between indigenous Chinese and imported IR theory and concepts, and how Chinese scholars are analyzing “their China” in terms of its current rise to power.

This book examines the ways in which Confucian political culture operates in contemporary Chinese politics and influences its development. The author argues that the authoritarian political culture performs functions similar to the democratic political culture, drawing on a wide range of data—surveys, interviews, archives, Public Hearing Meeting records, and the Party Congress Reports of the Chinese Communist Party—to substantiate and illustrate these arguments. In an authoritarian political system, the “legitimating values” of the authoritarian political culture persuade the public of their government’s legitimacy and the “engaging values” equip individuals with a set of cultural dispositions, resources, and skills to acquire political resources and services from the state. In the context of Chinese politics, personal connections infused with affection and trust—the Social Capital in the Confucian culture—facilitate political engagement. Despite the country’s continuous advocacy for the “rule of law,” state and public perceptions of legal professionals and legal practices, such as mediation and lawyer-judge relations, are fundamentally moralized. A new “people ideology,” which originated in the Confucian political culture, has been re-appropriated to legitimate the Party’s hegemonic governing position and policies.

This book looks at the relationship between Chinese international relations (IR) scholarship and China’s rise as a world power. Specifically, it addresses how China’s rising international status since the early 1990s has shaped the country’s IR studies, and the different ways that Chinese IR scholars are interpreting that rise. The author argues that the development of IR studies in China has been influenced by China’s past historical experiences, its recent change in status in world politics, and indigenous scholarly interpretations of both factors. Instead of treating Chinese IR scholars as value-free social scientists, the author shows how Chinese scholars—as purposive, strategic, and emotional actors—tend to manipulate existing (mostly Western) IR theories to support their policy propositions and identity statements. This book represents one of few efforts to determine how local Chinese scholars are constructing IR knowledge, how they are dealing with intersections between indigenous Chinese and imported IR theory and concepts, and how Chinese scholars are analyzing “their China” in terms of its current rise to power.

In its propaganda, the Chinese Communist Party does not deny the value of “democracy”, but it insists that democracy in China can be only “socialist democracy with Chinese characteristics”. The most essential nature of such “democracy” is that it is under the single-party system and it excludes multi-party politics and competitive elections. In recent years, “Chinese democracy” has won more support because of achievements the party has made in developing economy. This raises a question: does this “efficient” authoritarian political system in China, even if it is not democratic, deserve applause because it can facilitate economic development? The party also insists that it is “democratic”. But, is the party's theory of “democracy” compatible with western democracy?Since 1998, the party has organized some political reforms, such as “direct elections” for township executives, “direct elections” for township party secretaries, township party congress reform and “deliberative democracy” experiments, while maintaining single-party politics. In the party's propaganda, some of these reforms have become party achievements in improving “socialist democracy with Chinese characteristics”. In addition to these four kinds of party-organized reforms, another “reform” originated from the grassroots, the participation of independent candidates in a few local people's congress elections.This book examines these five local political reforms. It demonstrates that the four reforms instigated and organized by the party were tightly controlled and manipulated by the party. Although some reform measures may possibly liberalize parts of China's political mechanism, it is highly unlikely that the four reforms will eventually lead to political democratization in China. In the fifth “reform”, which was motivated from outside the bureaucratic system, the party took drastic measures to repress the political participation of grassroots power. As a result, nearly all independent candidates in the local people's congress elections failed in their attempts to gain office. The prospects for this “reform” are also poor. The book argues that all five reforms have failed and that none will lead to China’s democratization in the near future. The book concludes that the party’s authoritarian regime in China is by nature anti-democratic and that so-called “socialist democracy with Chinese characteristics” is not democratic.

State–society relations and governance are closely related areas of study and have become important topics in the social sciences in the past decades, not only in developed countries but also in the developing world. In China, state-society relations have been changing in the new era of reform and opening, and governance has become a central concern in policy practice and in academia. In this wide-ranging collection of essays, written by scholars from both inside and outside China, the contributors explore the complexity of the changing state-society relationship and the modes and practices of governance in China by combining theoretical exploration and empirical case studies.