GeoJournal Library – serie

Time and space are two of the most basic dimensions of human life. They envelop all human beings from birth to death. As such, they provide the context for human existence. At the same time, however, time and space also serve as major influencing factors in mankind's actions. Hence, a vast literature has developed on time and space as separate dimensions, and recently on time-space as joint dimensions. Interestingly enough, the social connotations of time and space have mostly been studied with the individual human being in mind. The more societal significance of time and space, whether separately or jointly, have been relatively neglected. It is the purpose of this volume to help fill this lacuna through discussions on some of the many junctions of time, space, and society at large. The discussion will naturally involve concepts and findings from more than just one discipline -- notably, geography, sociology, social history and political science. It is, thus, obvious that the topic may be highlighted from several perspectives. Given my own education and work, the approach will lean more to the geographical perspective. Geography has a special merit as an integrating framework for the study of time, space, and society. It is a discipline that has space at the center of its raison d'etre and, as such, has always striven for integration, holism and comprehensiveness.

Human clustering in coastal areas The coastal zone has gained a solid reputation as a place vocated for recreational activities and this is generally related to the presence of the sea. The relationship, however, does not appear univocal or simple: the sea can be perceived as a hostile element by humans and the more general question of whether the presence of the shore is in itself a favourable, repulsive, or irrelevant factor to settlement is a debatable point, at least for pre-industrial societies. Back in the early part of the 19th century, Friedrich Hegel regarded oceans and rivers as unifying elements rather than dividing ones, thus implying a trend towards the concentration of human settlements along them. 'The sea', he wrote, 'stimulates 1 courage and conquest, as well as profit and plunder', although he realized that this did not equally apply to all maritime peoples. In Hegel's view, different approaches to the sea were mainly the results of cultural factors and, in fact, he recognized that some people living in coastal areas perceive the sea as a dangerous and alien place and the shore as aftnis terrae.

About four years ago Dr. Gilbert White visited China and sowed the seeds of this project through conversations with Drs. Huang and Gong of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Mr. Long of the Yellow River Conservancy Commission. After some additional rounds of communications by letter, the plan for a workshop evolved and Drs. Wolman and Brush visited with Dr. Sabadell of the Nat_ional Science Foundation to begin the initial planning. In March 1987 Dr. Brush visited China and the details were worked out for the October 1987 workshop. At the outset it was recognized that the 10 American scientists and engineers ltad very Ii ttle knowledge of the Yellow River and none had ever seen it. Therefore, it became important that field trips be scheduled before the workshop to better set the stage for fruitful discussions. It was also acknowledged that the American participants could not present papers about the Yellow River per se so their offerings reflected their general knowledge of rivers using other rivers as examples. On the other hand the Chinese participants were all well into the difficult problems of harnessing the Yellow River and made their presentations accordingly. Despite these differences the subject matter was the unifying thread and cross communication was excellent.

In August 1989, a Summer Institute was held at the Academie van Bouwkunst, the seventeenth century home of Amsterdam's School of Architecture, Town Planning and Landscape. The meeting brought together experts in Geographical Information Systems from throughout the world to address an international audience of planners. The contents of this book reflect many of the themes that were presented and discussed at the conference. The Summer Institute, let alone this volume, would not have been possible without the support of the International Association for the Development and Management of Existing and New Towns (INTNAIVN), the International Society of City and Regional Planners (ISoCaRP), The National Physical Planning Agency of the Netherlands (RPD) and the Berlage Studio. We wish to acknowledge the assistance provided by these organisations and by the various sponsors: The Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, the Municipality of Amsterdam, Logisterion b.v., ESRI, UNISYS, MABON b.v., SPSS, PRIME Computer Inc., PANDATA. The provision of hardware facilities by the various computer companies allowed immensely valuable 'hands on' experience to be gained by all the participants.

oil is the lifeblood of the World's economy. It was a critical element in two World Wars and in the Cold War, and, as recent events in the Middle East confirm, people are willing to fight for it. The cheap energy it provides, especially for transport and agriculture, was one of the main factors that made possible the economic prosperity and growth that the World has enjoyed for the past fifty years and more. People rely on it everywhere, and in many forms, and they have become so accustomed to its ready availability that they take it for granted. To conceive of a world without traffic jams and airliners is unthinkable, and while not so obvious, oil lies behind every supermarket shelf, fuelling the tractor that ploughs the field and the delivery van that brings the consumer his food. Yet everyone knows that it is a finite and irreplaceable commodity, formed long ago in the geological past. What no one knows is just how finite it is. This book is an effort to try to answer that question : not in detail, but at least in orders of magnitude. More useful than the figures themselves is the discussion of the elements involved in addressing the subject. While it is impossible to predict the precise pattern of future production, which will be affected by many unforeseeable factors, one can at least begin to think in terms of resource constraint instead of an ever expanding supply of oil.

Randstad Holland is the urbanized western part of the Netherlands. It contains the four largest cities of the country: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. The name Randstad (rim city) refers to the distinctive shape of the conurbation, a horseshoe of cities around an open agricultural and recreational area, known as the Green Heart. This book analyzes the restructuring of the region. The volume summarizes the research of the Urban Networks Research Program. The discussion is focused on four themes: housing, labour market and employment, infrastructure and transportation, and the provision of public services. The Randstad is internationally known as the playground of urban and regional planners. Their debates on present policy issues are extensively reviewed in the book. This work should be of interest to teachers and students of urban change and planning, and policy makers and planners in The Netherlands and abroad.

This volume presents a collection of multidisciplinary papers written by scientists from the various countries of the Pacific rim. The major topics covered are the origins of life in the marine environment, the changing distribution of biological parameters, hydrophysical and hydrochemical processes, and the exploitation of ocean resources and the ensuing consequences. The material is divided into five parts. An introduction gives an overview of the research activities of the IOC and related organizations. The following four parts of the book comprise a number of survey papers which deal with specific aspects of marine science in the Pacific Ocean. This book should be of use to researchers and decision makers interested in marine and environmental science with an emphasis on the Pacific Ocean.

This book gives a comprehensive overview in the English language of Belgian planning and urban development. As such it satisfies a void in the planning literature about developments in an increasingly important country of northwest Europe. Belgium and its capital, Brussels, are the administrative heart of the emerging European Community. The physical impact of this administrative centrality will be enormous - especially for Brussels. The planning response to these new functions by the Belgian government and people is given attention in this text. The book also describes the unique cultural and political circumstances of Belgium, a nation which combines both Latin and Germanic cultural strains. The impact of linguistic divisions on the content of planning legislation and the content of planning is another major theme of the book. The special issues of urban development in Brussels and Antwerp, the nation's two largest cities, are discussed as well as the planning issues of smaller cities, including Brugge with its vast historic patrimony, Liege and Louvain-la-Neuve, a new academic town for the French-speaking segment of the population.

In his beautiful booklnvisible eities Italo Calvino writes about the two cities ofValdrada, the one which lies on the shores of a lake, and the other which is reflected in the lake and contains not only the exterior of Valdrada on the shores, but also its interior, and probably its inhabitants. "Valdrada's inhabitants know", writes Calvino, "that each of their actions is, at once, that action and its mirror image . . . and this awareness prevents them from succumbing for a single moment to chance and forgetfulness". Such mirror­ image relations are characteristic of the Israeli-Palestinian relations, and the awareness of this property is, to my mind, one of the most dominant experiences in being 'an Israeli. As an Israeli I can testify that Palestinianism is a permanent resident in the personal and collective consciousness of Israelis, and I have good grounds to suppose that Zionism plays a similar role in the personal and collective consciousness of Palestinians. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is thus not only political, but also very personal, and the account I present below is no exception. It is my personal, and in this respect Israeli, perspective of the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, with no pretension to a value-free and objective science.

The former Soviet Union possessed some of the world's largest reserves of energy and mineral resources. With the dissolution of the country in 1991, the former Soviet republics are now exercising complete control over their mining industries. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of several new nations, well-endowed in hydrocarbons, metals, and industrial materials, and efforts are now underway to boost development activities and attract foreign investment. Commonwealth members today are implementing policies to regulate energy and mineral development and enhance economic growth. This text provides a comprehensive overview of the energy and minerals industries of the CIS and other former Soviet republics outside the Commonwealth. Prospects for international co-operation and trade in hydrocarbons, metals, and nonmetals are examined, as are opportunities for joint ventures and technology transfers in mining. Economic relations between the CIS and several Asian nations are also analyzed.Contributors to the book from throughout the Commonwealth, Asia, Europe, and North America have a wide variety of backgrounds in the energy and mineral fields, including government, academia, and industry.

While coastal tourism has been treated from many perspectives, this book offers the first substantial examination of the environmental basis of coastal tourism. The first part of the book examines some of the basic aspects and various methodologies of the coastal environment for tourism. Drawing from a wide range of case studies, the second part of the book discusses various tourism-environment relationships of different coastal environments. The examples include atolls and enclave tourism, island tourism and tourism development at various stages, barrier coasts and tourism development at different stages, and complex coastal environments and more mature tourism development. The writers have adopted one or a combination of approaches: empirical, methodological or conceptual. The volume should stimulate awareness and further research on the coastal environment for tourism.

The complex relations between territory and the social sciences are explained by investigators from different disciplines: geography, economy, sociology and history among them. The current ferment in the social sciences has assigned an increasingly important role to the concept of space. In this text, internationally respected authors demonstrate the renewed vigour of the concept of space within the social sciences in general, and within the historical social sciences in particular. Consciously situating human geography among these latter, the contributions advocate an integrated vision of societies, taken through the lenses of an interdisciplinary human science. Geography and history, originally united in the pursuit of understanding the concrete forms and developments of societies, are once again brought under the unifying umbrella of a spatialized human science.Human geography in particular, which has been asserting itself as a social science since the 1970s, must be rejuvenated, not only by listening to all the messages that can stimulate its theoretical construction, but also by establishing close relations with all discourses which speak of a society as a whole, made up of differently conditioned historical parts.

This book is about an art in which the Netherlands excels: strategic planning. Foreign observers will need little convincing of the merits of Dutch planning. They will want to know whether routine explanations (small country, industrious, disciplined people hardened by the perennial fight against the sea) hold any water, and they will want to know where to look for the bag of tricks of Dutch planners. Dutch readers need to be convinced first that planning in the Netherlands is indeed effective before contemplating how this has come about. Our message for both is that, to the extent that Dutch planners do live in what others are inclined to see as a planners' paradise, it is a paradise carefully constructed and maintained by the planners themselves. This smacks of Bernard Shaw describing a profession as a conspiracy against laity. However, all knowledge and all technologies are 'socially constructed', meaning that they are the products of people or groups pursuing often conflicting aims and coming to arrangements about what is to pass as 'true' and 'good'. So this takes away the odium of Dutch planners having their own agenda. Positioning ourselves We are in the business of interpreting Dutch planning, and at the same time committed to improving it. This makes us part of the situation which we describe. This situation is characterized by the existence of two divergent traditions, urban design and the social-science discipline called 'planologie'.

Neural nets offer a new strategy for spatial analysis, and their application holds enormous potential for the geographic sciences. However, the number of studies that have utilized these techniques is limited. This lack of interest can be attributed, in part, to lack of exposure, to the use of extensive and often confusing jargon, and to the misapprehension that, without an underlying statistical model, the explanatory power of the neural net is very low. This text attacks all three issues, demonstrating a wide variety of neural net applications in geography in a simple manner, with minimal jargon. The volume presents an introduction to neural nets that describes some of the basic concepts, as well as providing a more mathematical treatise for those wanting further details on neural net architecture. The bulk of the text, however, is devoted to descriptions of neural net applications in such broad-ranging fields as census analysis, predicting the spread of AIDS, describing synoptic controls on mountain snowfall, examining the relationships between atmospheric circulation and tropical rainfall, and the remote sensing of polar cloud and sea ice characteristics.The text illustrates neural nets employed in modes analogous to multiple regression analysis, cluster analysis, and maximum likelihood classification. Not only are the neural nets shown to be equal or superior to these more conventional methods, particularly where the relationships have a strong nonlinear component, but they are also shown to contain significant explanatory power. Several chapters demonstrate that the nets themselves can be decomposed to illuminate causative linkages between different events in both the physical and human environments.

In The Asian City the Asian urbanisation processes, nature and characteristics of the 1990s have been analyzed by countries, by comparing different countries and in an international context. The authors are urban specialists from four continents. This volume has been divided into six parts: Part I Urbanisation in an international context; Part II Comparative urban setting; Part III Urbanisation characteristics by country; Part IV Urban planning; Part V The urban poor, and Part VI Perspectives on urbanization. This work allows the reader to understand Asian urban forms, their evolution, the nature of urbanisation, its impact on economic growth in cities, the living and working conditions of the poor, and urban planning and problems.

Corporate Geography examines the spatial structures and behaviour of large business organizations. Corporations are key operational units of economies. Each corporation has several locations and connections to suppliers and customers who also operate in geographical space. The effectiveness of corporate spatial organizations is of importance for their well-being and for the health of the national and local economies in which they operate. This volume discusses where and why firms locate units of production, sales and control and how these interact with each other, with suppliers and with customers. The foundations are from commercial geography, business economics and location theory, but there are some unique characteristics. One is the blending of manufacturing and retailing in one treatise. Another is the extensive use of real-company case studies which illustrate both the basic concepts and the inadequacies of existing models. Corporate managers can relate tothe experiences of actual companies. This book is of interest to scientists, researchers and professionals in economic geography, business administration, general management, microeconomies, industrial organization and economic planning.

and processes which are exclusive to humans in their encoding, storing, decoding and retrieving spatial knowledge for various tasks. The authors present and discuss connectionist models of cognitive maps which are based on local representation, versus models which are based on distributed representation, as well as connectionist models concerning language and spatial relations. As is well known, Gibson's (1979) ecological approach suggests a view on cognition which is diametrically different from the classical main stream view: perception (and thus cognition) is direct, immediate and needs no internal information processing, and is thus essentially an external process of interaction between an organism and its external environment. The chapter by Harry Heft introduces J. J. Gibson's ecological approach and its implication to the construction of cognitive maps in general and to the issue of wayfinding in particular. According to Heft, main stream cognitive sciences are essentially Cartesian in nature and have not as yet internalized the implications of Darwin's theory of evolution. Gibson, in his ecological approach, has tried to do exactly this. The author introduces the basic terminology of the ecological approach and relates its various notions, in particular optic flow, nested hierarchy and affordances, to navigation and the way routes and places in the environment are learned.

Northern Ireland's problems are rooted in physical and historical geography - small resource base, peripheral location, violent conquest, repression and ruthless marginalization of the native population by the Protestant settlers. The text argues that Britain would be serving her own interest by easing reunification of Ireland, albeit gradually and cautiously. The work is aimed at European Community administrators and planners, diplomats, politicians, students in political science, economics, history and geography.

This text introduces the ten-nation region of Southeast Asia, taking into consideration its diversity, differential development, socio-economic and political changes. Countries included are Indonesia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. Physical, political, cultural, economplanological aspects are covered.

The arid frontier has been a challenge for humanity from time immemorial. Drylands cover more than one-third of the global land surface, distributed over Africa, Asia, Australia, America and Southern Europe. Disasters may develop as a result of complex interactions between drought, desertification and society. Therefore, proactive planning and interactive management, including disaster-coping strategies, are essential in dealing with arid-frontier development. This book presents a conceptual framework with case studies in dryland development and management. The option of a rational and ethical discourse for development that is beneficial for both the environment and society is emphasized, avoiding extreme environmentalism and human destructionism, combating both desertification and human livelihood insecurity. Such development has to be based on appropriate ethics, legislation, policy, proactive planning and interactive management. Excellent scholars address theseissues, focusing on the principal interactions between people and dryland environments in terms of drought, food, land, water, renewable energy and housing. Audience: This volume will be of great value to all those interested in Dryland Development and Management: professionals and policy-makers in governmental, international and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), as well as researchers, lecturers and students in Geography, Environmental Management, Regional Studies, Development Anthropology, Hazard and Disaster Management, Agriculture and Pastoralism, Land and Water Use, African Studies, and Renewable Energy Resources.

The effects of isolation, area size, and habitat quality on the survival of animal and plant populations in the cultural landscape are central aspects of a research project started in Germany in 1993 (,Forschungsverbund, Isolation, FHichengroBe und BiotopquaIiHit', abbreviated to 'FIFB'). After a long period of preparation, scientists from seven univer­ sities and one research institution started to work within the frame of this project. Fund­ ing for four years was provided by the former German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT), now the Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). A strong focus of the project has been the improvement of the methodology for environmental impact assessments and the implementation of results into environmental planning. As there is a certain risk that national projects develop some kind of 'mental in­ breeding', it was decided to discuss concepts, methods, and first results with scientists of international reputation at a rather early stage of the project. For this purpose, an inter­ national workshop was held in the small village of Lubast, north of Leipzig (state of Saxony) in March 1995. 130 scientists from 10 nations met to discuss and debate issues surrounding habitat fragmentation for three days. Papers presented there formed the basis for this book. As discussions included general reviews as well as particular case studies, we decided to structure this book in a similar way. Consequently, a combination of broad and more general, review-like papers as well as original papers are presented.

This book addresses many of the issues raised in the debate on global change, providing a new point of view on climate which is being integrated into the space and time organization of societies. The volume contains three main parts: climatic changes and fluctuations; climates on a regional scale, including problems from tropical through temperate zones to polar regions; and man-climate relationships on a local scale. Global change is caused mainly by climatic variation and change and activities of human societies. This book aims to describe these facts from the various space scales - global, regional and local - and also different time scales - post-glacial, historical and recent periods. Since climate affects all kinds of human activities such as agriculture, forestry, architecture, civil engineering, transportation, tourism and health. This book aims to contribute to the work of researchers, planners and policy makers in a wide variety of fields. For example, as indicated by the IPCC 1995 Report, adjustment of human societies is considered to be one of the most important features in the 21st century.

This volume contains a selection of papers presented at the second workshop on Evaluation and Planning held at Centre International de Hautes Etudes Agronomiques Mediterraneennes (CIHEAM) in Valenzano (Bari) in November 1993. The workshop was financially and otherwise supported by the School of Engineering, Bari Polytechnic; the School of Agriculture, University of Bari; and CIHEAM. The publication of this book was made possible by to the efforts of the contributing authors. Several other persons have provided invaluable support for the workshop or the preparation of this volume. One of these is Patsy Healey for her fascinating challenge to Andreas Faludi's most recent arguments about rational planning theory. Another is John Friedmann whose lecture at the workshop presented world future scenarios depicting interaction between economic growth, social justice and ecological balance. Angela Barbanente provided marvelous support in organizing the workshop and editorial advice in the preparation of this volume. Jeremy Franks carefully improved the English and the clarity of all the papers. Carmelo Torre made a final editing of texts and images. We owe thanks to Maurizio Raeli for providing all the support services during the workshop and Claudia Baublys for her excellent help with various administrative issues with regard to the workshop and publication of this book. This book is dedicated to the memory of Professor Giovanni Grittani, Professor of Land Economics, University of Bari.

The potential impact of global warming on water resources is of major national and international concern. This book draws together research work aimed at providing global and regional syntheses of the likely hydrological effects of climate change over the coming century. The chapters range from assessments at continental and sub-continental scale, to the development of new methodological approaches for down-scaling climatic predictions, analyses of recent trends in hydrometric data, and reviews of ongoing research on regional hydrological impacts. Although it is still early days for climatic impact prediction, the book demonstrates considerable unaniminity in its general conclusions.

10.2 Summary of Ideas ..................................................... 256 10.2.1 Spatial Behavior As Rules For Decision Making ................................... 258 10.2.2. Cognitive Mapping ......................................................................... 258 10.2.3. Storing Information ................................................. " ...................... 260 10.2.4. Searching ..................................................................................... 260 10.2.5. Learning ........................................................................................ 261 10.2.6. Judging Similarity .......................................................................... 261 10.2.7 Neural Geographic Information Science (NGIS) .................................... 262 REFERENCES ............................................... 265 INDEX ........................ .............. 279 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................... 287 x LIST OF TABLES Table 8.1: The types of similarity comparisons created for the experiment to determine the effect ofx as a first or second common or distinctive feature (Lloyd, Rostkowska-Covington, and Steinke 1996). Table 9.1: Data used to compute the gravity model using regression and a neural network. Data for all variables are scaled so that the highest value equals 0.9 and the lowest value equals 0.1. Table 9.2: Class means for 11 socio-economic and life-cycle variables for the Black, Integrated, and White classes. Table 9.3: Weights for neuron at row 5 and column 1 that learned the blue horizontal rectangle map symbol. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Spatial cognition is a research area of interest for both geography and psychology. Both disciplines are interested in fundamental ideas related to encoding processes, internal representations, and decoding processes. Figure 1.2: The place names on this map of New Orleans depict the propositions used for navigation by local residents. A similar map appeared in theJune 30, 1991, edition of The Times-Picayune.

International river basins first captured my interest while I worked on water resource issues in the US Department of the Interior during the 1970s and '80s. I was especially intrigued with the way the US resolved long and recurring disputes with Mexico over the shared use of the Colorado River. The elements of decision making common to basins throughout the world were present in these transboundary conflicts and their resolution. In 1985 I began collaborating with Dr. Eleonora Sabadell, who was then a specialist in water resources at George Washington University and who is now with the US National Science Foundation, on analyses of several international river basin agreements. The work combined her expertise as a civil engineer and mine as a political scientist and practicing policy analyst. We wrote articles, participated in panel sessions, and in 1986 directed an international workshop at IIASA in Laxenburg, Austria. By no means ready to retire in 1989 I nevertheless began to thinkof leaving Interior to spend full time exploring the challenge, and intrinsic value, of transboundary river basin agreements. I applied for a Fulbright research grant to develop for the Danube River Basin one of the most needed tools for successful management of an international river, a basin-wide information system. My proposal, for nine-months' study at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, was filed with the Fulbright Program on September 1, 1989.

Country on the Move presents original research and a comprehensive multidisciplinary analysis of the spatial aspects of migration. It considers the spatial results of two diametrically opposed policies: planning from above to settle the North African and Asian newcomers in the 1950s, and planning by market forces for immigrants from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s. Unlike other books on immigration, Country on the Move also analyzes internal migration within Israel, which is an outcome of the regional disparities produced by immigration. Moreover, it compares the empirical findings in Israel with international trends, and its analysis can serve as a foundation for setting spatial immigration policy. Audience: Researchers specializing in population geography, migration, and regional development; university students on all levels who are taking courses in these subjects; and top officials in government ministries that deal with immigration.

Presenting an international comparison of segregation patterns of immigrants and policy reactions at local and state level, this book sets out to give an insight into the European experience with ethnic segregation in metropolitan areas. European cities have generally become multi-ethnic metropolises, consisting of a mix of ethnic categories, but a homogeneous European picture does not exist. Patterns of ethnic segregation and policy reactions differ from city to city. The metropolises compared in this study are Amsterdam, Brussels, Dusseldorf, Frankfurt, London, Manchester, Paris and Stockholm, and the Canadian city of Toronto. The book is intended for researchers and students in the fields of geographical, ethnic and policy studies, as well as for civil servants and policy-makers working in large metropolises and national governments.