Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development – serie

"Eurasia: A New Peace Agenda" includes chapters from a distinguished group of Eurasian scholars, journalists, and diplomats. The volume is focused on a new peace agenda grounded in a dialogue among the Eurasia civilizations. Part I deals with the problems and prospects of such a dialogue and its consequences for world peace. Part II focuses on the old dilemmas and new challenges in Eurasian security. The nuclear arms race, religious resurgence, super-terrorism, militarism, imperialism, and confidence building are among the topics. Part III concentrates on globalization and regionalization as the two dominant Eurasian trends. The volume compares and contrasts regionalist trends in Europe, Asia, and North America. The competition and cooperation among different global forces led by the United States, Europe, and Asia for resources and identities are the main foci.

Since the suicide terrorist attacks of September Eleven, security issues have become more prominent again. There is also an increased interest in the military, since the military was and still is seen as a major instrument in the so-called, 'war on terror'. The anthology focuses on the most recent developments in the military sphere and tries to assess the impact of September Eleven and the 'new military missions' on the armed forces in terms of, inter alia, conflict management capabilities, social and psychological developments inside military units, recruitment and civil-military relations of the armed forces in the wake of September 11th. The contributions to this anthology represent the most important and pertinent papers presented at an international meeting organized by the RC 01: Armed Forces & Conflict Resolution within the International Sociological Association (ISA) which took place in Ankara, Turkey, in July 2004.They focus on the most recent developments in the military sphere and try to assess the impact of September Eleven and the 'new military missions' on the armed forces in terms of, inter alia, conflict management capabilities, social and psychological developments inside military units, recruitment and civil-military relations. The book is composed by seven chapters. First comes a chapter devoted to conflict resolution. The second chapter deals with the international military activities and their impact on and consequences inside the military institution. The third chapter is devoted to presenting the first results of an empirical, cross-national research project on the divide between the armed forces and their parent societies and on the cultural dimensions of this gap. Families and women in war and in armed forces are the subject of the following chapter. The representation of the interest of military personnel on the agenda is dealt with in the fifth chapter.Several national case studies constitute the contents of the sixth chapter which is particularly focusing on third world countries. The last chapter entails papers which deal with Turkey and its armed forces in various ways. This series publishes both theoretical and empirical papers on conflict and peace related to economic, social and political development, primarily of the developing countries. The role of uneven distribution of resources, inequity in income distribution, social and political discrimination, poverty, and arms spending on conflict within and between countries is covered. The focus is on conflict and its management and possible resolution.

This book is a report of cross-national research on the civil-military cultural differences in democratic societies, particularly centred on the attitudes of national elites, here considered as being mainly composed of professionals. The research studies the question: What are the differences between the values, opinions and attitudes of military officers and those of professionals belonging to other categories? What is the effect of these differences on society in each country, and on the national security sector? What are the current trends of this gap? Researchers investigated a sample of cadets at military academies and their generational peers at civilian universities (future elites). An expert survey was also employed to sample present elites, both civilian and military.The report is divided into three parts: the first describes the methodological aspect of the research; the second part, taking a comparative international approach, analyses the results of the research with respect to the main survey themes; the third part continues the volume by examining specific national themes in the context of the results of the cross-national comparison developed in the preceding part. In a final chapter, the data of the expert survey has been compared with the data that emerged from the survey of future elites, to glean elements for a general summary and evaluation on the cultural gap. This is the first cross-national research outside the U.S. on civil/ military cultural differences. It is a significant comparison of the attitudes of present and future elites on security matter. It provides a deep understanding of national specificities of the 13 participating countries on the military issues.

South Asia is a distinct geographical entity comprised of seven countries - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Maldives (situated in the Indian Ocean). The region, as discussed in the contributions to this volume, is turning out to be the most dangerous place in the world, representing a breeding ground of bloody terror and radical extremism exemplified by the assassination of Benazir Bhutto, of Pakistan, in December 2007.India and Pakistan have been involved in a never-ending conflict over Kashmir since the sub-continent was divided in 1947, and have been involved in numerous wars and superpower games. The situation has now become alarming since both countries possess nuclear arms, religious extremism has spread, and there is increased internal ethnic fighting (particularly in Pakistan). Pakistan, often described as a failed state, is experimenting with democracy with serious internal and external results. Bangladesh, oscillating between brief periods of democracy and military dictatorship, is becoming a center for religious extremism, and poses serious problems for India due to illegal immigration. In Nepal, the monarchy has been abolished and a left-wing Maoist government has taken hold. For the last twenty years, Sri Lanka has been involved in a bloody civil war. Even Bhutan and Maldives experience security and internal problems. The chapters in this book look at these countries in a historical context, from inter-regional and international perspectives. Conflict and peace in South Asia connect with a diverse array of factors, ranging from poverty, nuclear proliferation, heavy military expenditure at the expense of development and social goods, militancy, insurgency, illegal migration, environmental degradation, resource depletion, child labor, gender discrimination, and so on. Globalization has increased the income of the region's wealthy class segments and promoted inter-regional inequality. All these factors are interrelated. Accordingly, this volume includes papers that link socio-economic factors, resource constraints, and international trade to human security. Although most of the papers are case studies for individual countries, an attempt has been made in other papers to show how the quantitative methods of Peace Science can be used to analyze the region's situation and make predictions for the future.

Although all religions and cultures preach the gospel and virtues of peace, the history of mankind is the history of war and peace; millions have perished in international and domestic conflicts, and many wars have been fought on behalf of those same religions and people who call for peace around the world. During the 20th century, at the height of human civilization, we have seen two world wars and many devastating region conflicts. Although the last two decades have seen a prevalence of domestic, rather than international conflict, these have been as vicious and as destructive as any other war. Further, we are still facing the threat of nuclear confrontation, and a new kind of war - the war on terror - is also taking place.Although there is widespread desire for peace, there is no sustained advocacy of it by our political and cultural leaders. Citizens the world over have become more insecure because of international and domestic conflicts, genocide, terrorism, drug and criminal activities, weapons of mass destruction, pandemic threats of infectious diseases like Aids and HIV, natural disasters, poverty, resource constraints, climate change, threats to the international financial system, and much else. All these are interrelated at some level. In the name of international and domestic security, billions of dollars are wasted on unproductive military spending in both developed and developing countries, when millions are starving and living without basic human needs.This book contains a number of original articles relating to military spending, military industrial establishments, peace keeping, terrorism, environmental security and democratic peace, prepared by leading scholars in the field. Since we are living in a globalized world, global security rather than national security is the relevant issue. Global security must be consistent with and complimentary to a basic human security, which preserves freedom from threats to people's rights and safety. Because peace is not just the absence of violence. It is related to all the above issues - the socio-economic, political and physical environment of the world. Making this clear is the focus of the book.

Today, Europe is facing a political crisis because it has not solved a double dilemma. The first one is institutional and concerns the frontiers of the Union and thus the number of potential regions. The second one is economic, and makes it necessary to choose between, on the one hand, the need to strengthen the European growth poles (especially the metropolitan regions) in order to compete successfully with the Triad and the Asiatic countries and, on the other, the obligation to ensure harmonious development and to distribute the structural funds more evenly or even to concentrate them in the Eastern countries and the less favoured regions characterized by atonic growth. In other words, the choice facing the European Commission reflects the crucial dilemma between size and integration and between equity and growth. In terms of territorial prospective and management, four main scenarios must be compared and their impacts must be estimated: the strengthening of concentration, the diffused metropolization, the increase of regional inequalities and the polycentrism. This is the main reason why the question of European regional convergence is now attracting considerable attention, since polarization phenomena and specific regional trajectories are challenging the hypothesis of automatic catch-up within the European Union over nearly two decades. This interest is further compounded by the huge challenge of integrating the ten new Eastern countries, two other candidates in 2007 (Bulgaria and Romania) and probably several other ones in the near future (especially Croatia, but also Moldavia and Ukraine and, perhaps, Turkey). For regional policy-makers, the main concern is to make monetary integration successful, to moderate the divergent forces and to stimulate the lagging territories. This study of spatial convergence is very interesting, because it combines theoretical openness, access to recent statistical databases (REGIO) and the use of mathematical applications (Markov chains, Generalized Moments method), together with the possibility of conducting empirical tests leading to a new analysis of decentralization policies and to the characterization of new growth factors and new locational strategies. All these methods are used to analyze the empirical reality of the European convergence process, for Western European countries and Eastern ones successively. A final chapter on the regional dynamics in Ukraine and Russia is also added. The results show a strong diversity of regional evolutions at an aggregate level and specific spatial dynamics at a sectoral level. The role of agglomeration economies (density, regional capitals) and spatial externalities (diffusive growth), especially through autocorrelation tests and fixed effects analysis, as well as the importance of regional specialization and of metropolarization are confirmed. To sum up, the main finding of this book is the coexistence of national convergence and regional divergence for the Western countries and the converse for the Eastern ones. All these empirical results shed light on the relevance of new economic geography, the need to distinguish spatial and institutional hierarchies and give some appropriate strategies to policymakers. The questions of the quality of the integration and the prospect of further enlargement of the European Union to the East (up to the Urals frontier) highlighted by these empirical findings demand ingenious political management in order to reconcile regional diversity (and especially the fact that a moderate level of inequalities could stimulate global growth) and the European project itself (not only the economic aspects but also the political and cultural aspects). To conclude, the main question is whether the European Union has the means to play on different fields (geographic size, cultural mix and above all distribution of structural funds) without threatening its long-term growth and diluting its economic culture (and its social cohesion) in the face of globalization.

"Economics of War and Peace: Economic, Legal, and Political Perspectives" brings together recent, cutting-edge research on economic factors affecting peace and war. This important area of continuing research was the focus of an international conference held at the University of Sydney in June 2009 and these chapters are partly drawn from among the best contributions to that meeting. The book weaves together threads from a number of themes in current research including new theoretical perspectives on the economic foundations of peace, violence and war within countries, connections between international trade and inter-state conflict, and the role of legal/institutional factors in international and internal conflict. Through a focused exploration of these related topics emerge areas of scholarly consensus as well as areas of continued debate. International in scope, it is the only book to explicitly bring together economic, legal and political scholarship to focus on the problem of conflict. It employs a range of modern social science analytical methods, including qualitative cases, econometrics, and game-theoretic models, to rigorously advance understanding of conflict within and between countries.

Over the last three decades, a considerable amount of work has been conducted in the field of peace studies, conflict management, peace science in economics, sociology, anthropology and management. This volume presents up-to-date, cutting-edge research by respected scholars with an emphasis on theoretical and mathematical constructs in the area of peace economics & peace science.

Over the last three decades, a considerable amount of work has been conducted in the field of peace studies, conflict management, peace science in economics, sociology, anthropology and management. This volume presents up-to-date, cutting-edge research by respected scholars with an emphasis on theoretical and mathematical constructs in the area of peace economics & peace science.

This volume of "Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development" includes some of the selected papers presented by scholars in a European Peace Science Network Meeting recently held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Chapters in this volume cover the conflicts in Maoist India, South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa. The authors have employed highly sophisticated quantitative techniques and principles of Economics and Political Science in determining the causes of these ethnic conflicts and effects on human and material resources.

This volume explores three recent challenges the military faces: changing missions, changing socio-economic and demographic conditions, and end of conscription. The military will have to change its view of the world, the nature of conflicts and its profession considerably.

Over the last three decades, a considerable amount of work has been conducted in the field of peace studies, conflict management, peace science in economics, sociology, anthropology and management. This volume presents up-to-date, cutting-edge research by respected scholars with an emphasis on theoretical and mathematical constructs in the area of peace economics and peace science.

Part 2 of 'Cooperation for a Peaceful and Sustainable World' brings together some of the leading researchers on peace science. Chapters discuss issues including, but not restricted to, military expenditure and economics in China, India and Pakistan, peace science in South East Asia, and approaches to anti-terrorism.

This volume presents a range of views on the current state of global nuclear disarmament from eminent scholars from India, Israel and France. Chapters present and analyse the relationships between India, Pakistan and the USA, Russia and the USA, the position of the EU and of Israel. The perspectives presented range from optimism to pessimism on global nuclear disarmament and consequences for human security.

The recent proliferation of studies on terrorism has brought scholars from different fields and approaches to converge on this phenomenon. As a result, economists, social and political scientists have developed theories, evidence and, in a sense, even a peculiar jargon of their own. Starting from this assumption, the book aims to bring scholars with different expertise and background around the same table, showing how their individual perspectives can contribute to a broader understanding of the issue at stake. In other words, the aim that inspires the book is that the multi-disciplinary nature of terrorism requires a concerted effort by social sciences - in particular, economics and political science. The book deals with a number of issues - from the definition and forms of terrorism, to its economic determinants, from the distribution and forecast of terror attacks to the measurement of their impact on societies.

This volume analyses several recent evolutions in global defence activities. Since the 1990s the industry has gradually repositioned because of geostrategic transformations, spatial reorganisation, budgetary trends, and evolutions within the production of defence per se, which have disrupted its economic and social fabric. These changes widen the scope of industrial activities and modify the organization of relations between armed forces, firms and local economies as well as society. They deeply affect the footprints of defence in several dimensions and its impacts on local communities, public/private boundaries and evolving requirements of armed forces. This volume analyses key features of recent and ongoing transformations of defence issues, from four perspectives. The first section considers those factors which are redefining the boundaries of defence, with a focus on defence economics; part two focuses on the spatial footprint of defence and its transformations and analyses the insertion of defence activities within urban landscapes; the third part analyses how armed forces manage their human resources; and the final section considers the international landscape of defence.

Good business needs a peaceful and just world in which to operate and prosper. Likewise, peace thrives in a healthy economic environment. However, many companies - either directly or indirectly - are involved in the arms race and in a battle to exploit and control scarce resources. As a result of the ambiguous power of business, a timely reflection on its impact on war and peace is needed as well as a conscious pro-peace commitment. Business, Ethics and Peace gathers a selection of papers presented at the International SPES Conference Business for Peace, Strategies for Hope at Ypres, April 10 - 12, 2014. Among the many initiatives commemorating the centennial of World War I, this project focuses on the ethical need to prevent the next conflict. It interprets and presents peace as a holistic and evolving concept, defining the need for an ethical charter of human rights and responsibilities. The papers illustrate the impact of religion in peace management and present solutions and practices for corporate peace-building.

The role of emotions is important in explaining conflicts and their resolution. Witness the emotions surrounding the outbreak of wars past and current and their endings. In order to introduce the perspective of emotions as an explanatory scheme of conflict escalation and crises, a comparison to classical conceptions such as the pursuit of power or commercial and financial interests is warranted. On first glance these two explanatory schemes seem to be at opposite extremes. However, new approaches to decision-making and rationality and challenges to the traditional expected utility model make these two conceptions much more compatible. The new perspective of rank dependent expected utility and the closely related notion of utility functions, which can both represent risk averse and risk preferring attitudes in decision-making go a long way in incorporating emotions within otherwise rational choices. One can thus build models that account more easily for conflict escalations but also for conflict resolution. These theoretical considerations are investigated within empirical cases of civil wars and shown to be effective in explaining the origins but also the breakdown of conflicts.

This collection addresses the relationship between business, the natural environment, ethics, and spirituality. While traditional economic theory generally assumed firms maximize profits, it has long been acknowledged that other factors may be important to understanding firm activities. The role of ethics and spirituality in society is clearly significant, yet economists have traditionally had little to say on these topics and how they intersect with economic activity. Integral Ecology integrates concerns for people and the planet. It sees the world as systemically linked to ecology, economy, equity and justice and accessible through the natural and social sciences, arts and humanities. It links to sustainable business through frugal consumption, acknowledging the intrinsic value of nature, and adopting holistic management practices.This insightful study provides the insights of economists, business scholars, philosophers, lawyers, theologians and practitioners who are working in Europe, North America, and Asia. Their contributions highlight the relationship between integral ecology and sustainable business practices, and explore the meaning of sustainability in relation to both human and non-human life, offering a series of new and invigorating approaches to sustainable business practices and sustainability leadership.

Understanding how leaders make foreign policy and national security decisions is of paramount importance for the policy community and academia. This book explores how leaders such as Trump, Obama, Netanyahu and others make decisions using the Applied Decision Analysis (ADA) method. The chapters gathered here analyse the decisions made by key political figures around the world, past and present, in order to shed light on how these decisions are made and what policy implications they have for their own and other nations. Several chapters also focus on military decision making, including around pivotal times in history including the second world war and the evolution of nuclear warfare.

Excessivemilitary spending reduces the available financial reserves for health,education, and other human needs. For poor countries, it increases poverty,unemployment, and destitution. It also strengthens dictatorial tendenciesin politics and acts against democratic values. If we want to achieve peace,eliminate poverty, decrease inequality, and achieve social justice, we shoulddevote all our energies to reducing military spending and using the releasedresources for economic development. For that, we need a concerted effort toencourage disarmament. This newvolume provides reflections and insights fromleading public figures and activists who oppose military expenditure in anyform. Many of the contributions to this volume were presented as speeches atthe 'Disarm!For a Climate of Peace' meetingheld in Berlin in 2016, organized by the International Peace Bureau. The volume also includes additional research-oriented chapters to complement the transcriptsfrom the International Peace Bureau meeting.

Technology, Society, and Conflict comprehensively studies and systematically highlights technological inequalities as a source of conflict in digital development while developing an economic and legal approach to resolving them. With a progressive approach, chapters reveal the social nature of technological inequality and digital development conflicts and model them as social institutions. The conflicts of digital development are identified and analysed in detail: global conflict of the technological inequality in the modern world economy; gender conflict; conflict in the labour market in the context of automation based on Robots, Big Data, and AI; and conflict in international trade. The manifestations of the digital divide are considered based on international practical experience at all levels of management – country, regional, business and household levels.This 30th volume of Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics, and Development gives special attention to the latest experience in technological inequality and the aggravation of digital development conflicts in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and crisis in 2019-2020 with foresight for the post-pandemic period.

The beginnings of globalisation are usually dated to the last third of the twentieth century, alongside the rise of supranational companies, the financial economy and the information technology revolution. However, from the time the Earth was “anthropocized” during the Palaeolithic era, globalisation has not ceased, though it has seen a number of fluctuations, including the era of WWI and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Globalisation and COVID-19 examines how the simultaneous immobilisation of billions created a temporary hold on the mobility which constitutes the very irrigation of globalisation.In this 31st volume of the book series Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development, world-renowned contributors explore the pandemic through the lens of globalisation, analysing its implications for the globalised world and its development over time. Through innovative tools and methodologies of emerging social sciences like Regional Science, Peace Science, and particularly of Management Science which includes artificial intelligence and quantum mechanics, Globalisation and COVID-19 brings together researchers and practitioners to create a transversal and systemic approach necessary to interrogating essential questions of pandemic-era globality.

International migration afflicts nearly every corner of the globe, from the Americas, Europe and North Africa, and adjoining countries in South Asia. This migration links the socio-economic statuses of migrants’ home countries and those into which they are migrating. This phenomenon has a profound impact upon ethnic conflict, resource availability, famines and other natural and manmade disasters, as well as financial, political, social and environmental implications for some of the world’s most seemingly unsolvable crises, such as world peace. These vast complexities have been further exemplified by the COVID-19 pandemic, which, as analysed through an environmental and migratory lens, is the focus of this 32nd volume of the book series Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development.With contributions from world-renowned scholars, International Migration, COVID-19, and Environmental Sustainability tackles recent universal subject matter and ties it to key contemporary issues, including globalisation and sustainability, that are related to international migration and its impacts.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused widespread disruption and rapid change, impacting public policy with unprecedented impact globally, nationally, regionally, and locally. All facets and groups within society were affected, and the aftermath of this is still being felt.Stemming from the international meeting, “Disaster Management: Global Pandemic and Its Impact” held in Binghamton University, New York on Jan. 23-25, 2023, this volume of the Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace, Economics and Development series features an international authorship discussing a wide array of key topics. Shining light on the issues emphasized during the COVID-19 pandemic, from the European Union, energy, and the environment, dietary factors and sleep, crime, leadership, online dispute resolution, to risk perception, biopower and trust, COVID-19 and Public Policy comprehensively covers age, gender, geographical locations, and more.COVID-19 and Public Policy is of great value to policymakers and researchers internationally navigating the post-COVID-19 world.

This volume contains some selected papers from the “International Conference on Peace Economics, Peace Science and Development”, held at the Mahatma Gandhi Center for Conflict Prevention and Management in Bangalore, India on July 11 to 13, 2024. The chapters cover the topics of social conflict, socioeconomic inequalities, ethnic animosity, and natural resources accessibility, and more in the Indian Subcontinent and Africa. The authors demonstrate how to use theories and methodologies from Peace Economics and Peace Science as well as cultural spirituality, nature therapy, and art forms to address issues to find more sustainable and productive ways for international and regional communities to cohabitate and collaborate harmoniously.Conflict Prevention and Peace Management appeals to researchers, policymakers and those interested in Conflict Management and Peace Studies, along with politics, sociology, economics, and psychology.

Understanding how leaders make foreign policy andnational security decisions is ofparamount importance for the policy community and academia. Yet on their own,neither rational nor cognitive schools of decision-making analysis offer totallyconvincing results, and in any case, rigorous decision analysis methodologiesare rarely, if ever, applied to the decisions of world leaders.How Do Leaders MakeDecisions?: Evidence from the East and West, Part B,the second in a two-part volume covering a total of ten world leaders, fills thisgap by using the Applied Decision Analysis (ADA) method to explore how figuressuch as Putin, Erdogan, Khaled Mashal, Mao, and Saddam Hussein make or made majordecisions of international significance. By analysing the decisions made by keypolitical figures around the world, past and present, the chapters gatheredhere shed light on how they are reached and what policy implications they havefor their own and other nations. The analyses are based on traditional andcontemporary theories of foreign policy decision making, including, but notlimited to, the rational actor model, the cybernetic theory of decision,poliheuristic theory, and various decision rules, including the elimination-by-aspectrule and the lexicographic decision rule. Cumulatively, what these chaptersuncover is that foreign and nationalsecurity policies can be best explained by tracing the cognitive processleaders go through in formulating and arriving at their decisions.For itsgroundbreakingly rigorous methodology and its unprecedented scope, this bookand its companion book are essential reading for students, scholars, andpolicymakers alike.

New Frontiers in Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Peace Science explores the uncharted land of conflicts, human security and peace.Bringing together a diverse, world-leading researchers, this 29th volume of Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development focuses on some of the most serious challenges to human security posed by intra-state conflict and terrorism, interstate wars, predatory globalisation, failed development, poverty and inequality, environmental problems and climate shocks, inefficient governance and man-made and natural disasters. In so doing, this book contributes to the crafting of well-grounded academic and policy responses to global problems that urgently require novel solutions.For its breadth and depth of research, this book is essential reading for researchers working in peace studies, conflict studies, sustainability studies and economics. It is also of keen interest to policymakers in all of these areas.

The study of armed forces and conflict resolution has undergone important developments at the turn of the millennium, driven by emerging events. The fall of the Berlin Wall, the end of the Cold War, the resurgence of nationalism and religious wars, ethnic cleansing, September Eleven, the War on Terror, and asymmetric warfare, the United Nations' inability to manage and successfully conclude military operations, are so many flash points of how much things have changed since the Cold War. The action of militaries has become more important, more difficult, more controversial, and, at the same time, insufficient, without parallel methods and political actions for resolving conflicts. As scholars conceptions of conflicts have changed, so have their understanding of conflict resolution and peace. This latter scholarship now spans analyses of the role of governments, civil institutions, and organized groups. The studies of building and sustaining peace now span institutional, inter-actional, and interpersonal levels in order to conceptualize a more holistic, long-term vision of peace.This book brings together contributions from scholars of various social science disciplines on three themes that appeared significant for the study of the phenomenon of conflict and conflict resolution. The first theme is centered on the new aspects of war in the twenty-first century where asymmetric warfare has changed many rules of the game, imposing a profound transformation on the military, not only tactical, but also structural, preparatory, mental and ideological.The second theme regards the delicate relations between the armed forces and societies. The ever-greater technicality of military operations and their lower comprehensibility to the broad public as a result, together with increased sensitivity in many countries in regard to the use of violence and death, have created social situations and problems that deserve to be investigated. The third theme, building and sustaining peace, operationalizes different types and levels of violence and conflict. It assesses ongoing efforts, for instance, governments trying to contain or diffuse conflict, businesses and national service schemes building peaceful civil spheres, and the efforts of organized groups to claim, shape, and extend the spheres of life that are free of conflict.