Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Fasa University, Fasa, Iran. Amin Mousavi Khaneghah, Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. Anderson de Souza Sant'Ana, Department of Food science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), São Paulo, Brazil.

• List of Contributors xiAcknowledgements xvIntroduction xvii1 Essential Oils and Their Characteristics 1M.C.T. Duarte, R. Duarte, R.A.F. Rodrigues and M.V.N. Rodrigues1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Chemical Characteristics of Essential Oils 11.1.2 Factors Influencing the Quantity and Quality of Essential Oil in Plants 81.1.3 Pathogens Attack 81.1.4 Environmental Factors 91.1.5 Hydric Stress 121.1.6 Plant Nutrition 131.1.7 Genetic Factors and Chemical Diversity 141.2 Conclusions 15References 152 Extraction Methods of Essential Oils From Herbs and Spices 21Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Sze Ying Leong, Anissa Khelfa, Ralf Greiner and Farid Chemat2.1 Introduction 212.2 Conventional Methods of Extraction 222.2.1 Hydrodistillation 222.2.2 Steam Distillation 272.2.3 Solvent Extraction 282.3 Novel Extraction Methods 322.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 322.3.2 Ultrasound‐Assisted Extraction 342.3.2.1 Ultrasound‐Assisted Solvent Extraction 342.3.2.2 Combination of UAE with Other Techniques 352.3.3 Ohmic‐Assisted Hydrodistillation 372.3.4 Pulsed Electrical‐Assisted Extraction 382.3.5 Microwave‐Assisted Extraction 402.3.5.1 Vacuum Microwave Hydrodistillation (VWHD) 402.3.5.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) 422.3.5.3 Solvent‐Free Microwave Extraction (SFME) 432.4 Conclusions 44Acknowledgements 44References 453 Identification of Essential Oil Components 57Elena E. Stashenko and Jairo Rene Martinez3.1 Introduction 573.2 Essential Oils as Multicomponent Complex Mixtures 593.2.1 Classification and Main Components 593.2.2 Compositional Variation and Dependence on Internal and External Factors 613.2.3 Essential Oil Isolation and Preparation for Chromatographic Analysis 623.3 Essential Oil Component Identification 653.3.1 Gas Chromatography 673.3.1.1 Columns 703.3.1.2 Injection Systems 713.3.1.3 Detection Systems 723.3.2 Retention Indices 773.3.3 Mass Spectrometry 823.3.3.1 Ionisation Processes 833.3.3.2 Ion Types and Fragmentation Patterns 843.3.3.3 Mass Spectra Interpretation 853.3.4 Hyphenated Techniques 953.4 GC‐MS 953.4.1 Tandem Methods 1033.4.2 Multidimensional and Comprehensive Techniques 1063.5 Isolation of Individual Components or Enriched Fractions 1103.6 Conclusions 111References 1124 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 119Hassan Eslahi, Nafiseh Fahimi and Ali Reza Sardarian4.1 Introduction 1194.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 1244.2.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 1244.2.2 Aromatic Compounds 1274.3 Synthesis and Biosynthesis of Essential Oils 1274.3.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 1304.3.2 Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpenoids 1474.3.3 Aromatic Compounds 1544.4 Effective Factors on the Composition of Essential Oils 155References 1575 Basic Structure, Nomenclature, Classification and Properties of Organic Compounds of Essential Oil 173Iuliana Vintilă5.1 Introduction 1735.1.1 Antioxidant Properties 1775.1.1.1 DPPH Assay 1785.1.1.2 The Bleaching Assay 1815.1.2 Anti‐Microbial and Anti‐Viral Activity 1825.1.3 Anti‐Aflatoxigenic Activity 1825.1.4 Anti‐Inflammatory, Analgesic, Antipyretic, Pro‐Kinetic and Pro‐Immunity Activity (Pharmacologic Properties) 1825.1.5 Anti‐Carcinogenic and Cytotoxicity Activity 1835.2 FinalConclusions 183References 1876 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil 191Saeedeh Shojaee‐Aliabadi, Seyede Marzieh Hosseini and Liela Mirmoghtadaie6.1 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 1916.1.1 Terpene Origin Compounds 1916.1.2 Aromatic Compounds 1936.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils 1936.3 Synergistic and Antagonism Effect of Essential Oils with Other Antimicrobials 2066.4 Interaction Between Essential Oils and Essential Oils with Other Food Antimicrobials 2076.5 Food Packaging Containing Essential Oils 2076.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging Containing Essential Oils 2076.5.1.1 Biopolymers 2086.5.1.2 Synthetic Polymers 2096.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging in Vapor Phase 2106.5.3 Release Properties of Essential Oils From Packaging 2116.6 Encapsulation of Essential Oils 2126.7 Application of Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Different Food Products 2146.7.1 Bakery Products 2146.7.2 Dairy Products 2166.7.3 Meat Products 2176.7.4 Fruits and Vegetables 2186.7.5 Others 219References 2197 Bioactivity of Essential Oils Towards Fungi and Bacteria: Mode of Action and Mathematical Tools 231Antonio Bevilacqua, Barbara Speranza, Marianne Perricone, Milena Sinigaglia and Maria Rosaria Corbo7.1 The Main Traits of Essential Oils 2317.2 Antibacterial Activity of EOs 2337.2.1 Effect on Cell Morphology 2347.2.2 Disruption of the Outer Membrane of Gram‐Negative Bacteria 2357.2.3 Effect on the Cytoplasmatic Membrane 2357.2.4 Homeostasis, Enzymes and Other Activities 2357.2.5 Changes in Proteome and Transcriptome 2367.2.6 EOs and Bacterial Spores 2367.3 Antifungal Activity of EOs 2377.4 Mathematical Tools 2377.4.1 Bacteria and Yeasts 2377.4.2 Filamentous Fungi 2397.4.3 Fractional Inhibitory Index 241References 2418 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils in Foods 247Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Shima Bazgir Khorram and Maryam Sohrabi8.1 Introduction 2478.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2488.3 Edible Oils and Fats 2508.4 Meat and Poultry Products 2578.5 Dairy Products 2608.6 Conclusions 261References 2619 Mode of Antioxidant Action of Essential Oils 267Riccardo Amorati and Mario C. Foti9.1 Introduction 2679.2 Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidant Activity of Chemical Compounds 2699.3 Methods for Determining the Antioxidant Properties of Chemicals 2749.3.1 Autoxidation of a Substrate 2759.3.2 TBARS (Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Species) 2759.3.3 The Rancimat Test 2769.3.4 ORAC Assay 2769.3.5 DPPH Test 2769.4 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2779.4.1 Essential Oils Components 2779.4.2 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2809.4.3 Antioxidant Activity of Films, Edible Coatings and Nanomaterials Containing EOs 2839.5 Antioxidant Activity of EOs in Real Food Samples 2849.5.1 EOs Directly Added to Food 2849.5.1.1 Fish 2849.5.1.2 Meat 2849.5.1.3 Oil 2859.5.2 EOs in Modified Atmosphere Packaging 2859.5.3 Edible Coatings 2879.6 Conclusions 287References 28710 Principles of Sensory Evaluation in Foods Containing Essential Oil 293Emma Mani‐Lopez, Ana Cecilia Lorenzo‐Leal, Enrique Palou and Aurelio Lopez‐Malo10.1 Introduction 29310.2 Sensory Aspects of Essential Oils 29410.2.1 Selected Examples 29510.3 Desirable Applications of Essential Oils and Their Relation with Sensory Analysis 29610.3.1 Antimicrobial Applications 29610.3.2 Antioxidant Applications 29610.3.3 Other Applications 29710.4 The Relationship Between Composition of Essential Oils and Sensory Properties 29710.5 Factors Influencing Sensory Measurements 30010.5.1 Physiological Factors 30010.5.2 Psychological Considerations 30010.5.3 Other Factors 30210.6 Selection and Training of Panelists 30310.6.1 Panelists for Descriptive Testing 30310.6.2 Trained Descriptive Panel 30410.6.3 Selection and Training of Panelists for Discrimination Tests 30510.7 Sample Preparation 30510.8 Sensory Analysis Methods 30910.9 Descriptive Tests 31010.10 Discrimination Tests 31310.11 Time‐Intensity Methods 31510.12 Preference Tests 31510.13 Sensory Analysis Reports 31610.14 New Approaches to Reduce Undesirable Sensory Effects of Essential Oils 320References 32011 Global Regulation of Essential Oils 327Ismail Es, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah and Hamid Akbariirad11.1 Introduction 32711.2 Global Institutions Involved in Essential Oil Regulation 32811.2.1 World Health Organisation (WHO) 32911.2.2 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) 33011.2.3 FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) 33211.2.4 International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) 33211.2.5 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 33311.2.6 EU Commission 33511.2.7 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 33511.2.8 Essential Oil Association of the United States (EOA) 33611.2.9 Australian Regulatory 33611.2.10 Canadian Food and Drug Regulation 33611.2.11 The American Essential Oil Trade Association (AEOTA) 33611.2.12 The International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades (IFEOAT) 33611.3 Conclusion 337References 33712 Safety Evaluation of Essential Oils 339Ramadasan Kuttan and Vijayasteltar B. Liju12.1 Introduction 33912.1.1 Use and Applications of Essential Oils 34012.2 Essential Oils and General Safety 34012.3 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Cosmetics and Industrial Applications 34112.4 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Agriculture 34212.5 Topical Administration of Essential Oils — Safety Issues 34312.5.1 Essential Oils and Aromatherapy 34312.6 Essential Oils and Eye Safety 34412.7 Phototoxicity of Essential Oils 34412.8 Acute and Sub‐Chronic Oral Toxicity of Essential Oils 34512.9 Constituents‐Based Toxicity Evaluation of Essential Oils 34612.10 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of the Essential Oils 34912.11 Conclusion 350References 351Index 359

Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Fasa University, Fasa, Iran. Amin Mousavi Khaneghah, Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. Anderson de Souza Sant'Ana, Department of Food science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), São Paulo, Brazil.

• List of Contributors xiAcknowledgements xvIntroduction xvii1 Essential Oils and Their Characteristics 1M.C.T. Duarte, R. Duarte, R.A.F. Rodrigues and M.V.N. Rodrigues1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Chemical Characteristics of Essential Oils 11.1.2 Factors Influencing the Quantity and Quality of Essential Oil in Plants 81.1.3 Pathogens Attack 81.1.4 Environmental Factors 91.1.5 Hydric Stress 121.1.6 Plant Nutrition 131.1.7 Genetic Factors and Chemical Diversity 141.2 Conclusions 15References 152 Extraction Methods of Essential Oils From Herbs and Spices 21Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Sze Ying Leong, Anissa Khelfa, Ralf Greiner and Farid Chemat2.1 Introduction 212.2 Conventional Methods of Extraction 222.2.1 Hydrodistillation 222.2.2 Steam Distillation 272.2.3 Solvent Extraction 282.3 Novel Extraction Methods 322.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 322.3.2 Ultrasound‐Assisted Extraction 342.3.2.1 Ultrasound‐Assisted Solvent Extraction 342.3.2.2 Combination of UAE with Other Techniques 352.3.3 Ohmic‐Assisted Hydrodistillation 372.3.4 Pulsed Electrical‐Assisted Extraction 382.3.5 Microwave‐Assisted Extraction 402.3.5.1 Vacuum Microwave Hydrodistillation (VWHD) 402.3.5.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) 422.3.5.3 Solvent‐Free Microwave Extraction (SFME) 432.4 Conclusions 44Acknowledgements 44References 453 Identification of Essential Oil Components 57Elena E. Stashenko and Jairo Rene Martinez3.1 Introduction 573.2 Essential Oils as Multicomponent Complex Mixtures 593.2.1 Classification and Main Components 593.2.2 Compositional Variation and Dependence on Internal and External Factors 613.2.3 Essential Oil Isolation and Preparation for Chromatographic Analysis 623.3 Essential Oil Component Identification 653.3.1 Gas Chromatography 673.3.1.1 Columns 703.3.1.2 Injection Systems 713.3.1.3 Detection Systems 723.3.2 Retention Indices 773.3.3 Mass Spectrometry 823.3.3.1 Ionisation Processes 833.3.3.2 Ion Types and Fragmentation Patterns 843.3.3.3 Mass Spectra Interpretation 853.3.4 Hyphenated Techniques 953.4 GC‐MS 953.4.1 Tandem Methods 1033.4.2 Multidimensional and Comprehensive Techniques 1063.5 Isolation of Individual Components or Enriched Fractions 1103.6 Conclusions 111References 1124 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 119Hassan Eslahi, Nafiseh Fahimi and Ali Reza Sardarian4.1 Introduction 1194.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 1244.2.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 1244.2.2 Aromatic Compounds 1274.3 Synthesis and Biosynthesis of Essential Oils 1274.3.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 1304.3.2 Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpenoids 1474.3.3 Aromatic Compounds 1544.4 Effective Factors on the Composition of Essential Oils 155References 1575 Basic Structure, Nomenclature, Classification and Properties of Organic Compounds of Essential Oil 173Iuliana Vintilă5.1 Introduction 1735.1.1 Antioxidant Properties 1775.1.1.1 DPPH Assay 1785.1.1.2 The Bleaching Assay 1815.1.2 Anti‐Microbial and Anti‐Viral Activity 1825.1.3 Anti‐Aflatoxigenic Activity 1825.1.4 Anti‐Inflammatory, Analgesic, Antipyretic, Pro‐Kinetic and Pro‐Immunity Activity (Pharmacologic Properties) 1825.1.5 Anti‐Carcinogenic and Cytotoxicity Activity 1835.2 FinalConclusions 183References 1876 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil 191Saeedeh Shojaee‐Aliabadi, Seyede Marzieh Hosseini and Liela Mirmoghtadaie6.1 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 1916.1.1 Terpene Origin Compounds 1916.1.2 Aromatic Compounds 1936.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils 1936.3 Synergistic and Antagonism Effect of Essential Oils with Other Antimicrobials 2066.4 Interaction Between Essential Oils and Essential Oils with Other Food Antimicrobials 2076.5 Food Packaging Containing Essential Oils 2076.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging Containing Essential Oils 2076.5.1.1 Biopolymers 2086.5.1.2 Synthetic Polymers 2096.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging in Vapor Phase 2106.5.3 Release Properties of Essential Oils From Packaging 2116.6 Encapsulation of Essential Oils 2126.7 Application of Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Different Food Products 2146.7.1 Bakery Products 2146.7.2 Dairy Products 2166.7.3 Meat Products 2176.7.4 Fruits and Vegetables 2186.7.5 Others 219References 2197 Bioactivity of Essential Oils Towards Fungi and Bacteria: Mode of Action and Mathematical Tools 231Antonio Bevilacqua, Barbara Speranza, Marianne Perricone, Milena Sinigaglia and Maria Rosaria Corbo7.1 The Main Traits of Essential Oils 2317.2 Antibacterial Activity of EOs 2337.2.1 Effect on Cell Morphology 2347.2.2 Disruption of the Outer Membrane of Gram‐Negative Bacteria 2357.2.3 Effect on the Cytoplasmatic Membrane 2357.2.4 Homeostasis, Enzymes and Other Activities 2357.2.5 Changes in Proteome and Transcriptome 2367.2.6 EOs and Bacterial Spores 2367.3 Antifungal Activity of EOs 2377.4 Mathematical Tools 2377.4.1 Bacteria and Yeasts 2377.4.2 Filamentous Fungi 2397.4.3 Fractional Inhibitory Index 241References 2418 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils in Foods 247Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Shima Bazgir Khorram and Maryam Sohrabi8.1 Introduction 2478.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2488.3 Edible Oils and Fats 2508.4 Meat and Poultry Products 2578.5 Dairy Products 2608.6 Conclusions 261References 2619 Mode of Antioxidant Action of Essential Oils 267Riccardo Amorati and Mario C. Foti9.1 Introduction 2679.2 Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidant Activity of Chemical Compounds 2699.3 Methods for Determining the Antioxidant Properties of Chemicals 2749.3.1 Autoxidation of a Substrate 2759.3.2 TBARS (Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Species) 2759.3.3 The Rancimat Test 2769.3.4 ORAC Assay 2769.3.5 DPPH Test 2769.4 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2779.4.1 Essential Oils Components 2779.4.2 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2809.4.3 Antioxidant Activity of Films, Edible Coatings and Nanomaterials Containing EOs 2839.5 Antioxidant Activity of EOs in Real Food Samples 2849.5.1 EOs Directly Added to Food 2849.5.1.1 Fish 2849.5.1.2 Meat 2849.5.1.3 Oil 2859.5.2 EOs in Modified Atmosphere Packaging 2859.5.3 Edible Coatings 2879.6 Conclusions 287References 28710 Principles of Sensory Evaluation in Foods Containing Essential Oil 293Emma Mani‐Lopez, Ana Cecilia Lorenzo‐Leal, Enrique Palou and Aurelio Lopez‐Malo10.1 Introduction 29310.2 Sensory Aspects of Essential Oils 29410.2.1 Selected Examples 29510.3 Desirable Applications of Essential Oils and Their Relation with Sensory Analysis 29610.3.1 Antimicrobial Applications 29610.3.2 Antioxidant Applications 29610.3.3 Other Applications 29710.4 The Relationship Between Composition of Essential Oils and Sensory Properties 29710.5 Factors Influencing Sensory Measurements 30010.5.1 Physiological Factors 30010.5.2 Psychological Considerations 30010.5.3 Other Factors 30210.6 Selection and Training of Panelists 30310.6.1 Panelists for Descriptive Testing 30310.6.2 Trained Descriptive Panel 30410.6.3 Selection and Training of Panelists for Discrimination Tests 30510.7 Sample Preparation 30510.8 Sensory Analysis Methods 30910.9 Descriptive Tests 31010.10 Discrimination Tests 31310.11 Time‐Intensity Methods 31510.12 Preference Tests 31510.13 Sensory Analysis Reports 31610.14 New Approaches to Reduce Undesirable Sensory Effects of Essential Oils 320References 32011 Global Regulation of Essential Oils 327Ismail Es, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah and Hamid Akbariirad11.1 Introduction 32711.2 Global Institutions Involved in Essential Oil Regulation 32811.2.1 World Health Organisation (WHO) 32911.2.2 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) 33011.2.3 FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) 33211.2.4 International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) 33211.2.5 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 33311.2.6 EU Commission 33511.2.7 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 33511.2.8 Essential Oil Association of the United States (EOA) 33611.2.9 Australian Regulatory 33611.2.10 Canadian Food and Drug Regulation 33611.2.11 The American Essential Oil Trade Association (AEOTA) 33611.2.12 The International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades (IFEOAT) 33611.3 Conclusion 337References 33712 Safety Evaluation of Essential Oils 339Ramadasan Kuttan and Vijayasteltar B. Liju12.1 Introduction 33912.1.1 Use and Applications of Essential Oils 34012.2 Essential Oils and General Safety 34012.3 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Cosmetics and Industrial Applications 34112.4 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Agriculture 34212.5 Topical Administration of Essential Oils — Safety Issues 34312.5.1 Essential Oils and Aromatherapy 34312.6 Essential Oils and Eye Safety 34412.7 Phototoxicity of Essential Oils 34412.8 Acute and Sub‐Chronic Oral Toxicity of Essential Oils 34512.9 Constituents‐Based Toxicity Evaluation of Essential Oils 34612.10 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of the Essential Oils 34912.11 Conclusion 350References 351Index 359

Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, Fasa University, Fasa, Iran. Amin Mousavi Khaneghah, Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. Anderson de Souza Sant'Ana, Department of Food science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), São Paulo, Brazil.

• List of Contributors xiAcknowledgements xvIntroduction xvii1 Essential Oils and Their Characteristics 1M.C.T. Duarte, R. Duarte, R.A.F. Rodrigues and M.V.N. Rodrigues1.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Chemical Characteristics of Essential Oils 11.1.2 Factors Influencing the Quantity and Quality of Essential Oil in Plants 81.1.3 Pathogens Attack 81.1.4 Environmental Factors 91.1.5 Hydric Stress 121.1.6 Plant Nutrition 131.1.7 Genetic Factors and Chemical Diversity 141.2 Conclusions 15References 152 Extraction Methods of Essential Oils From Herbs and Spices 21Shahin Roohinejad, Mohamed Koubaa, Francisco J. Barba, Sze Ying Leong, Anissa Khelfa, Ralf Greiner and Farid Chemat2.1 Introduction 212.2 Conventional Methods of Extraction 222.2.1 Hydrodistillation 222.2.2 Steam Distillation 272.2.3 Solvent Extraction 282.3 Novel Extraction Methods 322.3.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 322.3.2 Ultrasound‐Assisted Extraction 342.3.2.1 Ultrasound‐Assisted Solvent Extraction 342.3.2.2 Combination of UAE with Other Techniques 352.3.3 Ohmic‐Assisted Hydrodistillation 372.3.4 Pulsed Electrical‐Assisted Extraction 382.3.5 Microwave‐Assisted Extraction 402.3.5.1 Vacuum Microwave Hydrodistillation (VWHD) 402.3.5.2 Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) 422.3.5.3 Solvent‐Free Microwave Extraction (SFME) 432.4 Conclusions 44Acknowledgements 44References 453 Identification of Essential Oil Components 57Elena E. Stashenko and Jairo Rene Martinez3.1 Introduction 573.2 Essential Oils as Multicomponent Complex Mixtures 593.2.1 Classification and Main Components 593.2.2 Compositional Variation and Dependence on Internal and External Factors 613.2.3 Essential Oil Isolation and Preparation for Chromatographic Analysis 623.3 Essential Oil Component Identification 653.3.1 Gas Chromatography 673.3.1.1 Columns 703.3.1.2 Injection Systems 713.3.1.3 Detection Systems 723.3.2 Retention Indices 773.3.3 Mass Spectrometry 823.3.3.1 Ionisation Processes 833.3.3.2 Ion Types and Fragmentation Patterns 843.3.3.3 Mass Spectra Interpretation 853.3.4 Hyphenated Techniques 953.4 GC‐MS 953.4.1 Tandem Methods 1033.4.2 Multidimensional and Comprehensive Techniques 1063.5 Isolation of Individual Components or Enriched Fractions 1103.6 Conclusions 111References 1124 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 119Hassan Eslahi, Nafiseh Fahimi and Ali Reza Sardarian4.1 Introduction 1194.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 1244.2.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 1244.2.2 Aromatic Compounds 1274.3 Synthesis and Biosynthesis of Essential Oils 1274.3.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids 1304.3.2 Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpenoids 1474.3.3 Aromatic Compounds 1544.4 Effective Factors on the Composition of Essential Oils 155References 1575 Basic Structure, Nomenclature, Classification and Properties of Organic Compounds of Essential Oil 173Iuliana Vintilă5.1 Introduction 1735.1.1 Antioxidant Properties 1775.1.1.1 DPPH Assay 1785.1.1.2 The Bleaching Assay 1815.1.2 Anti‐Microbial and Anti‐Viral Activity 1825.1.3 Anti‐Aflatoxigenic Activity 1825.1.4 Anti‐Inflammatory, Analgesic, Antipyretic, Pro‐Kinetic and Pro‐Immunity Activity (Pharmacologic Properties) 1825.1.5 Anti‐Carcinogenic and Cytotoxicity Activity 1835.2 FinalConclusions 183References 1876 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil 191Saeedeh Shojaee‐Aliabadi, Seyede Marzieh Hosseini and Liela Mirmoghtadaie6.1 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils 1916.1.1 Terpene Origin Compounds 1916.1.2 Aromatic Compounds 1936.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils 1936.3 Synergistic and Antagonism Effect of Essential Oils with Other Antimicrobials 2066.4 Interaction Between Essential Oils and Essential Oils with Other Food Antimicrobials 2076.5 Food Packaging Containing Essential Oils 2076.5.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging Containing Essential Oils 2076.5.1.1 Biopolymers 2086.5.1.2 Synthetic Polymers 2096.5.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Packaging in Vapor Phase 2106.5.3 Release Properties of Essential Oils From Packaging 2116.6 Encapsulation of Essential Oils 2126.7 Application of Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Different Food Products 2146.7.1 Bakery Products 2146.7.2 Dairy Products 2166.7.3 Meat Products 2176.7.4 Fruits and Vegetables 2186.7.5 Others 219References 2197 Bioactivity of Essential Oils Towards Fungi and Bacteria: Mode of Action and Mathematical Tools 231Antonio Bevilacqua, Barbara Speranza, Marianne Perricone, Milena Sinigaglia and Maria Rosaria Corbo7.1 The Main Traits of Essential Oils 2317.2 Antibacterial Activity of EOs 2337.2.1 Effect on Cell Morphology 2347.2.2 Disruption of the Outer Membrane of Gram‐Negative Bacteria 2357.2.3 Effect on the Cytoplasmatic Membrane 2357.2.4 Homeostasis, Enzymes and Other Activities 2357.2.5 Changes in Proteome and Transcriptome 2367.2.6 EOs and Bacterial Spores 2367.3 Antifungal Activity of EOs 2377.4 Mathematical Tools 2377.4.1 Bacteria and Yeasts 2377.4.2 Filamentous Fungi 2397.4.3 Fractional Inhibitory Index 241References 2418 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils in Foods 247Seyed Mohammad Bagher Hashemi, Shima Bazgir Khorram and Maryam Sohrabi8.1 Introduction 2478.2 In Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2488.3 Edible Oils and Fats 2508.4 Meat and Poultry Products 2578.5 Dairy Products 2608.6 Conclusions 261References 2619 Mode of Antioxidant Action of Essential Oils 267Riccardo Amorati and Mario C. Foti9.1 Introduction 2679.2 Lipid Oxidation and Antioxidant Activity of Chemical Compounds 2699.3 Methods for Determining the Antioxidant Properties of Chemicals 2749.3.1 Autoxidation of a Substrate 2759.3.2 TBARS (Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Species) 2759.3.3 The Rancimat Test 2769.3.4 ORAC Assay 2769.3.5 DPPH Test 2769.4 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2779.4.1 Essential Oils Components 2779.4.2 Antioxidant Activity of Essential Oils 2809.4.3 Antioxidant Activity of Films, Edible Coatings and Nanomaterials Containing EOs 2839.5 Antioxidant Activity of EOs in Real Food Samples 2849.5.1 EOs Directly Added to Food 2849.5.1.1 Fish 2849.5.1.2 Meat 2849.5.1.3 Oil 2859.5.2 EOs in Modified Atmosphere Packaging 2859.5.3 Edible Coatings 2879.6 Conclusions 287References 28710 Principles of Sensory Evaluation in Foods Containing Essential Oil 293Emma Mani‐Lopez, Ana Cecilia Lorenzo‐Leal, Enrique Palou and Aurelio Lopez‐Malo10.1 Introduction 29310.2 Sensory Aspects of Essential Oils 29410.2.1 Selected Examples 29510.3 Desirable Applications of Essential Oils and Their Relation with Sensory Analysis 29610.3.1 Antimicrobial Applications 29610.3.2 Antioxidant Applications 29610.3.3 Other Applications 29710.4 The Relationship Between Composition of Essential Oils and Sensory Properties 29710.5 Factors Influencing Sensory Measurements 30010.5.1 Physiological Factors 30010.5.2 Psychological Considerations 30010.5.3 Other Factors 30210.6 Selection and Training of Panelists 30310.6.1 Panelists for Descriptive Testing 30310.6.2 Trained Descriptive Panel 30410.6.3 Selection and Training of Panelists for Discrimination Tests 30510.7 Sample Preparation 30510.8 Sensory Analysis Methods 30910.9 Descriptive Tests 31010.10 Discrimination Tests 31310.11 Time‐Intensity Methods 31510.12 Preference Tests 31510.13 Sensory Analysis Reports 31610.14 New Approaches to Reduce Undesirable Sensory Effects of Essential Oils 320References 32011 Global Regulation of Essential Oils 327Ismail Es, Amin Mousavi Khaneghah and Hamid Akbariirad11.1 Introduction 32711.2 Global Institutions Involved in Essential Oil Regulation 32811.2.1 World Health Organisation (WHO) 32911.2.2 Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) 33011.2.3 FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) 33211.2.4 International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) 33211.2.5 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 33311.2.6 EU Commission 33511.2.7 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 33511.2.8 Essential Oil Association of the United States (EOA) 33611.2.9 Australian Regulatory 33611.2.10 Canadian Food and Drug Regulation 33611.2.11 The American Essential Oil Trade Association (AEOTA) 33611.2.12 The International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Trades (IFEOAT) 33611.3 Conclusion 337References 33712 Safety Evaluation of Essential Oils 339Ramadasan Kuttan and Vijayasteltar B. Liju12.1 Introduction 33912.1.1 Use and Applications of Essential Oils 34012.2 Essential Oils and General Safety 34012.3 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Cosmetics and Industrial Applications 34112.4 Safety of Essential Oils Used in Agriculture 34212.5 Topical Administration of Essential Oils — Safety Issues 34312.5.1 Essential Oils and Aromatherapy 34312.6 Essential Oils and Eye Safety 34412.7 Phototoxicity of Essential Oils 34412.8 Acute and Sub‐Chronic Oral Toxicity of Essential Oils 34512.9 Constituents‐Based Toxicity Evaluation of Essential Oils 34612.10 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of the Essential Oils 34912.11 Conclusion 350References 351Index 359